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A HAND BOOK 
FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS: 

IN WHICH IS INCLUriET) 

A Comprehensive Review 

OK THF, SUBJECTS OF 

CIVIL GOVERNMENT and tHe THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING, 

TOGETHER WITH 

A COMPLETE OUTLINE OF U. S. HISTORY, 

FROM 
WASHINGTON TO CLEVELAND. 



PREPARED BY 




COLUMBUS, O. : 
PUBLISHED BY STIVERS & GUSTIN. 



v-'^< 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1885, by 

E. B. STIVERS, 
In the OfRce of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



ELECTROTYPKI), PHINTED, AND BOUND BY 

ALDINK PRINTING WORKS, 

CINCINNATI, O. 



PREFACE. 



The design of tlie following pages is to furnish teachers,* 
advanced pupils, and private learners, a select review of subjects 
taught in the common schools. 

The questions under each department have been compiled 
mostly from lists used by Boards of Examiners, and they embrace 
a great variety of topics, many technical terms, and curious odds 
and ends of subjects of interest to teachers and students: the 
respective answers have been prepared with much care, and they 
are based on the latest and most reliable authorities. 

Some features of the work, to which the careful attention of 
teachers is directed, are : United States History Outlines, Sys- 
tems of Diagramming, Orthographic Parsing, Practical Kules in 
Arithmetic, and the matter under the subject of Civil Govern- 
ment. 

The book entire embodies much of interest to teachers in our 
Public Schools, and to make it worthy the approval of his co- 
workers in the field of education, has been the aim of 

The Author. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



United States History Outlines 7 

Questions on United States History 33 

Answers to Questions on United States History 49 

Questions on Geography 93 

Answers to Questions on Geography 112 

Questions on English Grammar 165 

Answers to Questions on English Grammar 171 

Systems of Diagramming 194 

Questions on Orthography 201 

Answers to Questions on Orthography 206 

Orthographic Parsing 215 

Questions on Arithmetic 219 

Answers to Questions on Arithmetic 226 

Practical Rules in Arithmetic 242 

Questions on Civil Government 247 

Answers to Questions on Civil Government 254 

Salaries of Government Officials 270 

Speakers of the House of Representatives 271 

Questions on Physiology ... 273 

Answers to Questions on Physiology 283 

Questions on Teaching 811 

Answers to Questions on Teaching 315 



OUTLI NKS 



UNITED STATES HISTORY 



— PROM — 



WASHINGTON to CLEVELAND. 
For Study and Recitation. 



ELECTORAL COLLEGE, 73. =:= STATES VOTING, 10. 

[FEDERAL] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

April 30, 1789— March 5, 1793. 

" The Cincinnatus of the West." 

President : Vice-President : 

George Washington, Va. John Adams, Mass. 

Chief Justice: 
John Jay, N. Y. (Sept. 26, 1789.) 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— Thomas Jefferson, Va. (Sept. 26, 1789.) 
Secretary of Treasury— Alexander Hamilton, N.Y. (Sept. ii, 1789.) 
Secretary of War— Henry Knox, Mass. (Sept. 12, 1789.) 
Attorney General— Edmund Randolph, Va. (Sept. 26, 1789.) 

Topics : 

1. Revenue. 

2. Public Debt $74,000,000. 

3. District of Columbia (1790.) 

4. Slavery Discussed (1790.) 

5. Gen. Harmar's Expedition (1790.) 

6. United States Bank (1791.) 

7. Admission of Vermont (1791— Mar. 4th.) 

8. Whiskey Excise (1792.) 



'"Three States had no vote : New York had not passed an Electoral Law. 
North Carolina and Rhode Island had not ratified the Constitution. 



8 UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 

Electoral College, 135. Stales Voting. 15. 

[FEDERAL] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 5, 1793— March 4, 1797. 

'^ Providence left him childless, that his Country might 
call him Father." 

President : Vice-President : 

George Washington, Va. John Adams, Mass. 

Chief Justice: 

John Jay, N. Y. 

John Kutledge, S. C (July 1, 1795.) 
William Gushing, Mass. (Jan. 27, 1796.) 
Oliver Ellsworth, Gonn. (March 4, 1796.) 

Cabestet : 

Secretary of State— Thomas Jeft'erson, Va. 

Edmuud Randolph, Va. (Jan. 2, 1794.) 
Timothy Pickering, Mass. (Dec. 10, 1795.) 
Secretary of Treasury— Alexander Hamilton, N. Y. 

Oliver Wolcott, Conn. (Feb. 8, 1795.) 
Secretary of War— Henry Knox, Mass. 

Timothy Pickering, Mass. (Jan. 2, 1795.) 
John McHeury, Md. (Jan. 27, 1796.) 
Attorney General— Edmund Randolph, Va. 

William Bradford, Pa. (Jan. 28, 1794.) 
Charles Lee, Va. (Dec. 10, 1796.) 

Topics : 

1. Jefferson's State Paper (Dec. 16, 1793). 

2. Whitney's Cotton Gin (1793). 

3. " Citizen Genet " (1793). 

4. Wayne's Expedition (1794). 

5. Whisky Insurrection (1794). 

6. Jay's Treaty (1795). 

7. Spanish Boundaries (1795). 

8. Minister Adet (1795). 

9. Tennessee Admitted (June i, 1796). 
10. Presidential Election. * 



UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 9 

Electoral College, 138. States Voting, 16. 

[FEDERAL] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, 1797— March i, 1801. 

^' The Cohssits of Independence." 

President : Vice-President : 

John Adams, Mass. Thomas Jefferson, Va. 

Chief Justice: 

Oliver Ellsworth, Conn. 

John Jay, N. Y. (Dec. 19, 1800.) 

John Marshall, Va. (Jan. 31, 1801.) 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— Timothy Pickering, Mass. 

John Marshall, Va. (May 13, 1800.) 
Secretary of Treasury— Oliver Wolcott, Conn. 

Samuel Dexter, Mass. (Dec. 31, 1800.) 
Secretary of War— John McHenry, Md. 

John Marshall, Va. (May 7, 1800.) 
Samuel Dexter, Mass. (May 13, 1800.) 
Roger Griswold, Conn. (Feb. 3, 1801.) 
Secretary of Navy— George Cabot, Mass. (May 3, 1798.) 

Benjamin Stoddart, Md. (May 21, 1798.) 
Attorney General— Charles Lee, Va. 

Theophilus Parsons, Mass. (Feb. 20, 1801.) 

Topics : 

1. Envoys to France (1797). 

2. New Cabinet Office (April 30, 1798). 

3. French Treaties Abrogated (1798). 

4. Reprisals (1798). 

5. Resolutions of '98 (1798-9). 

6. Alien and Sedition Acts (1798). 

7. First Lieutenant General (1799). 

8. Death of Washington (Dec. 14, 1799). 

9. Treaty with the First Consul (1800). 

10. The New Capitol (Nov. i7, 1800). 

11. Presidential Election. 



10 UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 

Electoral College, 138. States Voting, 16. 

[DEMOCRATIC] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, 1801— March 4, 1805. 

"EqvMl and Exact Justice to all Men, of rvJmtever State or 
Persuasion, Religious or Political." 

President : Vice-President : 

Thomas Jefferson, Va. Aaron Burr, N, Y. 

Chief Justice: 
John Marshall, Va. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— James Madison, Va. (March 5, 1801.) 

Secretary of Treasury— Samuel Dexter, Mass. 

Albert Gallatin, Pa. (Jan. 26, 1802.) 

Secretary of War— Henry Dearborn, Mass. (March 5, 1801.) 

Secretary of Navy — Benjamin Stoddart, Md. 

Robert Smith, Md. (July 15, 1801.) 

Jacob Crowninshield, Mass. (March 2, 1805.) 

Attorney General — Levi Lincoln, Mass. (March 5, 1801.) 
Robert Smith, Md. (March 2, 1805.) 

Topics : 

1. The " Presidential Speech " (Dec. 7, 1801). 

2. Repeal of Alien and Sedition Acts (1802). 

3. Wat with Tripoli (1801—1805). 

4. Navigation of the Mississippi (1802). 

5. Admission of Ohio (Feb. 19, 180.3). 

6. Purchase of Louisiana Territory from the First Consul, for 

$15,000,000 (April 30, 1803). 

7. Lewis and Clarke Expedition (May 14, 1804). 

8. Hamilton-Burr Duel (July 11, 1801). 

9. The XII. Amendment (Sept. 25, 1804.) 

10. Presidential Election. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. H 

Electoral College, 176. States Voting, 17. 

[ DEMOCRATIC ] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, 1805— March 4, 1809. 

"T/ie Sage of Monticello." 
President: Vice-President: 

Thomas Jefterson, Va. George Clinton, N. Y. 

Chief Justice : 
John Marshall, Va. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— James Madison, Va. 

Secretary of Treasury— Albert Gallatin, Pa. 

Secretary of War— Henry Dearborn, Mas.s. 

Secretary of Navy— Jacob Crowniushield, Mass. 

Attorney General— Robert Smith, Md. 

John Breckenridge, Ky. (Aug. 7, 1805.) 
Csesar A. Rodney, Del. (Jan. 20, 1807.) 



Topics ; 



1. The National Road (1806). 

2. European Blockade (1806). 

3. The Slave Trade (1807). 

4. Right of Search (1807). 

5. Expatriation (1807). 

6. The Leopard and Chesapeake (1807). 

7. The First Steamboat (1807). 

8. Orders in Council (Nov. 1807). 

9. Milan Decree (Nov. 1807). 

10. Presidential Election (1808). 

11. Embargo Act (Dec. 1807). 

12. Non-Intercourse Act (March i, 1809). 



12 UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 

Electoral College, 176. States Voting, 17. 

[ DEMOCRATIC ] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, 1809— March 4, 1813. 

"T/ie Father of the Constitution." 

President : Vice-President : 

James Madison, Vu. George Clinton, N. Y, (^p'^jf.^'gl';?.) 

Elbridge Gerry, Mass. 

Chief Justice : 
John Marshall, Va. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— Robert Smith, Md. 

James Monroe, Va. (April 2, 1811.) 
Secretary of Treasury— Albert Gallatin, Pa. 
Secretary of War— William Eustice, Mass. 

John Armstrong, N. Y. (Jan. 13, 1813.) 
Secretary of Navy— Paul Hamilton, S. C. 

William Jones, Pa. (Jan. 12, 1813.) 
Attorney General— Cassar A. Rodney, Del. 

William Pinckuey, Md. (Dec. 11, 1811.) 

Topics : 

1. Milan Decree Revoked (1810). 

2. Northwest Indians (1810). 

3. Battle of Tippecanoe (Nov. 7, 1811). 

4. Admission of Louisiana (April 30, 1812). 

5. War with England (June 19, 1812). 

6. Hull's Surrender of Detroit (Aug. 16, 1812). 

7. The Frigates Constitution and Guerriere (Aug. 19, 1812). 

8. Presidential Election (1812). 

9. French town, Michigan, (Jan. 22, 1813). 

10. The Hornet and the Peacock (Feb. 24, 1813). 



UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 13 

Electoral College, 218. States Voting, 18. 

[ DEMOCRATIC J 

ADMINISTKATION. 

March 4, 1813— March 4, 1817. 

"We have met the ene^ny and they are ours." 

President : Vice-President : 

James Madison, Va. Elbridge Gerry Mass. 

Died Nov. 23, 1814. 

John Gaillard, S. C. 

Chief Justice: 
John Marshall, Va. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— -James Monroe, Va. 
Secretary of Treasury— Albert Gallatin, Pa. 

Geo. W. Campbell, Tenn. (Feb. 9, 1814.) 
Alexander J. Dallas, Pa. (Oct. 6, 1814.) 
Secretary of War— John Armstrong, N. Y. 

James Monroe, Va. (Sept. 27, 1814.) 
William H. Crawford, Ga, (March 3, 181.5.) 
Secretary of Navy— William Jones, Pa. 

B. W. Crowninshield, Mass. (Dec. 17, 1814.) 
Attorney General— William Pinckney, Md. 

Richard Rush, Pa. (Feb. 10, 1814.) 

Topics : 

1. The Shannon and Chesapeake (June 1, 1813). 

2. Heroism of Col. Croghan (Aug. 2, 1813). 

3. Perry's Victory (Sept. 10, 1813). 

4. Harrison's Victory— Death of Tecumseh (Oct. 5, 1813). 

5. Battle of Lundy's Lane (July 25, 1814). 

6. Capture of the Capitol (Aug. 24, 1814). \ 

7. McDonough's Victory (Sept. 11, 1814). 

8. Attack on Baltimore (Sept. 13, 1814). 

9. Hartford Convention (Dec. 15, 1814). 

10. Treaty of Ghent (Dec. 24, 1814). 

11. Battle of New Orleans (Jan. 8, 1815). 

12. War with Algiers (1815). 

13. Charter of U. S. Bank (1816). 

14. Presidential Election (1816). 

15. Indiana Admitted (Dec. 11, 1816). 

*Appointed Secretary of W.ar al.so after the capture of Washington City. 



14 UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 

Electoral College, 221. States Voting, 19. 

[ DEM0CR.\T1C ] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, 1817— J March 5, 1821. 

'■^ If his soul were turned inside out, not a spot wmdd be 
I found on it." 

President : Vice-President : 

James Monroe, Va. Daniel D. Tompkins, N.Y, 

Chief Justice : 
John Maishall, Va. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— John Q. Adams, Mass. 
Secretary of Treasury— William H. Crawford, Ga. 
Secretary of War— Isaac Shelhy, Ky. 

George Graham, Va. (April 7, 1817.) 

John C. Calhoun, S. C. (Oct. 8, 1817.) 
Secretary of Navy— Benjamin W. Crowninshield, Ma.ss. 

Smith Thompson, N, Y. (Nov. 9, 1818.) 
Attorney General— Richard Rush, Pa. 

William Wirt, Va., (Nov. 13, 1817.) 

Topics : 

1. First Pension Act (1817). 

2. Erie Canal Begun (1817). 

3. The Cumberland Road (1817). 

4. The Southern Indians (1817). 

5. The Stars and Stripes (1817). 

6. Admmis.sion of Mississippi (Dec. 10, 1817). 

7. Execution of Armbrister and Arbuthnot (1818). 

8. Admission of Illinois (Dec. 3, 1818). 

9. First Steamship Crossed the Atlantic (1819). 

10. Purchase of Florida (1819). 

11. Admission of Alabama (Dec. 14, 1819). 

12. First Missouri Compromi.se (March 2, 1820). 

13. Maine Admitted (March 15, 1820). 

14. Presidential Election (1820). 

15. Spanish Treaty Proclaimed by the President (Feb. 22, 1821). 
t The 4th occurred on Sunday. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. I5 

Electoral College, 235. =:,gt^tej. voting, 24. 

[DEMOCRATIC] 

ADMINISTKATION. 

March 5, 1821— March 4, 1825. 

"Era of Good Feeling." 

President : Vice-President : 

James Monroe, Va. Daniel D. Tompkins, N. Y. 

Chief Justice: 
John Marshall, Va. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— John Q. Adams, Mass. 
Secretary of Treasury- William H. Crawford, Ga. 
Secretary of War— John C. Calhoun, S. C. 
Secretary of Navy— Smith Thompson, N. Y. 

John Rodgei, Md. (Sept. 1, 1823). 

Samuel L. Southard, N. J. (Sept. 16, 1823.) 
Attorney General— William Wirt, Va. 

Topics : 

1. Second Missouri Compromise — Clay's Grand Joint- Committee 

(1821). 

2. Internal Improvements (1821). 

3. Admission of Missouri (Aug. 10, 1821). 

4. Cumberland Road Bill Vetoed (1822). 

5. Powers of the Federal Government— President's Views (Mav 4 

1822). ' 

6. Independence of Mexico— The "Monroe Doctrine" (1822). 

7. The "Nation's Guest" (Aug. 13, 1824). 

8. Clay's "American System" (1824). 

9. Presidential Election (1824). 

10. Bunker Hill Monument— Lafayette (1825). 

HSeVkSTntoUvL':''^''*'*''^""""^' ""'' ^^^"^"^'^^'^ ^«"«t«^*« ^^ the 



16 UNITED STATKS HISTORY OUTLINES. 

Electoral College, 261. States Voting, 24. 

[WHIG] 

ADMINISTRATION, 

March 4, 1825— March 4, 1829. 
"T/ie Old Man Eloquent." 

President : Vice-President : 

John Q. Adams, Mass. John C Calhoun, S. C. 

Chief Justice : 
John Marshall, Va. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— Heury Clay, Ky. 
Secretary of Treasury— Richard Ru.sh, Pa. 
Secretary of War— James Barbour, Va. 

Peter B. Porter, N. Y. (May 26, 1828.) 
Secretary of Navy— Samuel L. Southard, N. J. 
Attorney General— William Wirt, Va. 



Topics : 



1. Supposed Clay-Adams Alliance (1825). 

2. The Clay- Adams Committee of Investigation (1825). 

3. Georgia Defies the Federal Government (1825). 

4. Erie Canal Opened (Oct., 1825). 

5. Mode of Electing President and Vice-President ^l826). 

6. Duel between Henry Clay and John Randolph (1826). 

7. Death of JeflFerson and John Adams (July 4, 1826). 

8. Anti-Masonic Party (1827). 

9. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (1828). 

10. Imprisonment for Debt Abolished (1828). 

11. Presidential Election (1828). 

12. Revision of the Tariff (1828). 

13. National Republicans (1828). 



UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 17 

Electoral College, 2G1. States Voting, 24. 

[DEMOCRATIC] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March i, 1829— March 4, 1833. 

''Old Hickmy." 

President : Vice-President : 

Andrew Jackson, Tenn. John C. Calhoun, S. ('. 

Chief Justice : 
John Marshall, Va. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— Martin Van Biiren, N. Y. 

Edward Livingston, La. (May 24, 1831.) 
Secretary of Treasury— .Samuel Ingham, Pa. 

Louis McLane, Del. (Aug. 8, 1831.) 
Secretary of War— John H. Eaton, Tenn. 

Lewis Cass, Mich. (Aug. 1, 1831.) 
Secretary of Navy— Johu Branch, N. C. 

Levi Woodbury, N. H. (May 23, 1831.) 
Attorney General— John M. Berrien, Ga. 

Roger B. Taney, Md. (July 20, 1831.) 
Postmaster General— William T. Barry, Ky. 

Topics : 

1. Removals from the Civil Service. 

2. The President's Indian Policy (1829). 

3. The Great Webster-Hayne Debate (1830). 

4. The " Latter-Day Saints " (1830). 

5. Veto of the Maysville Road Bill (1830). 

6. Disruption between the President and his Cabinet (1831). 

7. Death of Monroe (July 4, 1831). 

8. Execution of the Pirate Gibbs (1831). 

9. Veto of U. S. Bank Bill (1832). 

10. Tariff Bill (1832). 

11. Nullification Ordinance (1832). 

12. Asiatic Cholera (June 21, 1832). 

13. Capture of Black Hawk (Aug. 27, 1832). 

14. First National Presidential Conventions (1831—1832). 
\b. Presidential Election (18H2). 

16. Clay's Tarift Compromise ^P"el). 12,1833.) 



18 UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 

Electoral College, 288. States Voting, 24. 

[ DEMOCRATIC ] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, 1833— March 4, 1837. 

" The Sage of the Hermitage." 

President: Vice-President: 

Andrew Jackson, Tenn. Martin Van Buren, N. Y. 

Chief Justice: 

John Marshall, Va. (Died July 6, 1835.) 
Roger B. Taney, Md. (March 15, 1836.) 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— Edward Livingston, La. 

Louis McLane, Del. (May 29, 1833.) 
John Forsyth, Ga. (June 27, 1834.) 
Secretary of Treasury— Louis McLane, Del. 

William J. Duane, Pa. (May 29, 1833.) 
Roger B. Taney, Md. (Sept. 3, 1833.) 
Levi Woodbury, N. H. (June 27, 1834.) 
Secretary of War— Lewis Cass, Mich. 
Secretary of Navy— Levi Woodbury, N. H. 

Mahlon Dickinson, N. J. (June 30, 1834.) 
Attorney General— Roger B. Taney, Md. 

B. F. Butler, N. Y. (Nov. 15, 1833.) 
Postmaster General— William T. Barry, Ky. 

Amos Kendall, Ky. (May 1, 1836.'> 

Topics : 

1. Death of Lafayette (May 20, 1833). 

2. Removal of Deposits from National Bank (Oct. 1833). 

3. The " Great Trio " (1833—1837). 

4. Meteoric Shower (Nov. 13, 1833). 

5. Clay's Resolution Censuring the President (March 28, 1834). 

6. The Florida Wars (1835—1842). 

7. Attempted As.sassination of the President (Jan. 13, 1835). 

8. Great Fire in New York (Dec, 16, 1835). 

9. France brought to Terms (lS3f>). 

10. Arkansas Admitted (June 15, 1836). 

11. Presidential Election (1836). 

12. The Specie Circular (1836). 

13. Distribution of Surplus Revenues (Jan. l, 1837). 

14. Michigan Admitted (Jan. 26, 1837). 

15. The Expunging Resolution Passed (Jan. 16, 1837). 



UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 19 

Electoral College, 294. States Voting, 26. 

[ DEMOCRATIC] 

ADMINISTRATION, 

March 4, 1837— March 4, 1841. 

''The first President born after the Revolution." 

President : Vice-President : 

Martin Van Buren, N. Y, Richard M. Johnson, Ky. 

Chief Justice: 
Eoger B. Taney, Md. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— John Forsyth, Ga. 

Secretary of Treasury— Levi Woodbury. N. H. 

Secretary of War— Joel R. Poinsett, S. C. 

Secretary of Navy— Mahlon Dickinsou, N. Y. 

James K. Paulding, N. Y. (June 30, 1838). 

Attorney General— Benjamin F. Butler, N. Y. 

Felix Grundy, Tenn. (September i, 1838.) 
Henry D. Gilpin, Pa. (Jan. lo, 1840.) 

Postmaster General— Amos Keudall, Ky. 

John M. Niles, Conn. (May 25, 1840.) 

Topics : 

1. Great Financial Panic (1837). 

2. The " Patriot War " (1837). 

3. Morse's Telegraph Patented (1837). 

4. Removal of the Cherokees (1838). 

5. Anti-Slavery Agitation (1838). 

6. The Calhoun and Atherton Resolutions (1838). 

7. The South Pole Exploring Expedition (1838). 

8. Smithsonian Institute Fund (1838). 

9. Attempt to Anne.x Texas (1838). 

10. The Sub-Treasury Bill passed (1840). 

11. " Hard Cider and Log Cabin " Campaign (1840). 

12. Great Temperance Movement (1840). 



20 UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 

Electoral College, 294. States Voting, 26. 

[ WHIG 1 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, 1841— March 4, 1845. 

''The Hero of Tippecanoe." ''The Cabinet Maker." 

President : Vice-President : 

W. H. Harrison, O. (Died April 4, 1841). John Tyler, Va. 

John Tyler, Va. 

Chief Justice : 
Eoger B. Taney, Md. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— Daniel Webster, Mass. 

Hugh S. Legare ad int., S. C. (May 9, 1843.) 
-Abel P. Upshur, Va. (July 24, 1843.) 
John C. Calhoun, S. C. (March 6, 1844.) 
Secretary of Treasury— Thomas Ewing, O. 

Walter Forward, Pa. (Sept. 13, 1841.) 
John C. Spencer, N. Y. (March 3, 1843.) 
George U. Bibb, Ky. (June 15, 1844.) 
Secretary of War— John Bell, Tenu. 

John McLean, O. (Sept. 13, 1841.) 
John C. Spencer, N. Y'. (Oct. 12, 1841.) 
James M. Porter, Pa. (March 8, 1843.) 
William Wilkins, Pa. (Feb. 15, 1844.) 
Secretary of Navy— George E. Badger, N. C. 

Abel P. Upshur, Va. (Sept. 13, 1841.) 
David Henshaw, Mass. (July 24, 1843.) 
t Thomas W. Gilmer, Va. (Feb. 15, 1844.) 
John Y. Mason, Va. (March 14, 1844.) 
Attorney General— John C. Crittenden, Ky. 

Hugh S. Legare, S. C. (Sept. 13, 1843.) 
John Nelson, Md. (July i, 1841.) 
Postmaster General— Francis Granger, N. Y. 

Charles A. Wickliffe, Ky. (Sept. 13, 1841,) 

Topics : 

1. The "Whig Congress" (May 31, 1841). 

2. National Bank Bill Vetoed (1841). 

3. High Protective Tariff Bill Vetoed (1842). 

4. Division of the Whig Party (1842). 

5. Webster- Ashburton Treaty at Washington (Aug. 20, 1842). 

6. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island (1842). 

7. Terrible Explosion aboard the Princeton (Feb. 28, 1844). 

8. First Telegraph Line Completed (1844). 

9. Presidential Election (1844). 

10. Trouble with the Mormons (1844). 

11. Florida Admitted (March 3, 1845). 

^■■Killed on board the Princeton, Feb. 28, 1844. John Nelson, Secretary ad in«. 
^Killed on board the Princeton, Feb. 28, 1844. Com. Lewis Warrington, 
Secretary ad int. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 21 

Electoral College, 275. Stales Voting, 26. 

[ DEMOCRATIC ] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, 1845— March 5, 1849. 

^^Fiftf -four forty, or fight." "All Oregon or none." 

President : Vice-President : 

James K. Polk, Tenn. George M. Dallas, Pa. 

Chief Justice : 

Koger B. Taney, Md. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— James Buchanan, Pa. 

Secretary of Treasury— Robert J. Walker, Miss. 

Secretary of War— William L. Marcy, N. Y. 

Secretary of Navy— George Bancroft, Mass. 

John Y. Mason, Va. (Sept. 9, 1846.) 

Attorney General— John Y. Mason, Va. 

Nathan Clifford, Maine. (Oct. 17, 1846.) 
Isaac Toucey, Conn. (June 21, 1848.) 

Postmaster General— Cave Johnson, Tenn. 

Topics : 

1. Repeal of the " Whig" Tariff of '42" (1845). 

2. Texas Admitted (Dec. 29, 1845). 

3. Invention of the Sewing Machine (1846). 

4. War with Mexico declared May (1846). 

5. Fremont's Conquest of California (1846). 

6. Kearney's Expedition (1846). 

7. The Jamestown'.s Mission to Ireland (1846). 

8. The Smith,sonian Institute Founded (Aug. 10, 1846). 

9. Re-enactment of the sub-Treasury System (1846). 

10. The Wilmot Proviso (1846). 

11. Doniphan's Expedition (1846-7). 

12. Naval Academy Established (1846). 

13. Iowa Admitted (Dec. 28, 1846). 

14. Capture of Vera-Cruz (March 29, 1847). 

15. Battle of Cerro Gordo (April 18, 1847). 

16. The Oregon Boundary Settled (June 15, 1846). 

17. Capture of Monterey (Sept. 24, 1S46 ]. 

18. Battle of Buena-Vista ( Feb. 23, 1847). 

19. Scott in the Palace of the Montezumas (Sept. 14, 1847). 

20. Treaty of Gandaloupe Hidalgo (Feb. 2, 1848). 

21. Wisconsin Admitted (May 29, 1848). 

22. Peace Declared (July 4, 1848). 

23. Presidential Election (1848). 

24. Gold Discovered at Sutter's Mill, Cal. (1848). 



22 UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 

Electoral College, 290. States Votine, 30. 

[WHIG.] 

ADMINISTEATION. 

March 5, 1849— March 4, 1853. 

"7 Have Tried to Do my Duty.'" 

President : Vice-President : 

Zachary Taylor, La. Millard Fillmore, N. Y. 

[Died July 9, 1850.] 

Millard Fillmore, N. Y. 

Chief Justice : 
Robert B. Taney, Md. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— John M. Clayton, Del. 

Daniel Webster, Mass. (July 20, 1850.) 
Edward Everett, Mass. (Nov. 6, 1852.) 
Secretary of Treasury— Wm. M. Meredith, Pa. 

Thomas Corwin, O. (July 20, 1850.) 
Secretary of War— Geo. W. Crawford, Ga. 

Charles M. Conrad, La, (Aug. 15, 1850.) 
Secretary of Navy— William B. Preston, Va. 

William A. Graham, N. C. (July 20, 1850.) 
John P. Kennedy, Md. (July 22, 1852.) 
Secretary of Interior— Thomas Ewing, O. 

Alexander H. H. Stuart, Va. (Sept. 12, 1860.) 
Attorney General- Reverdy Johnson, Md. 

John J. Crittenden, Ky. (July 20, 1850.) 
Postmaster General— Jacob Collamer, Vt. 

Nathan K. Hall, N. Y. (July 20, 1850.) 
Samuel D. Hubbard, Coun. (Aug. 3i, 1852.) 

Topics : 

1. The " Great Trio " in the Senate (1849). 

2. Squatter Sovereignty (1849). 

3. Death of Calhoun (March 31, 1849). 

4. Asiatic Cholera (1849). 

5. Clay's Last Compromise— The " Omnibus Bill " (1850). 

6. The Grinnell Expedition (1850—53). 

7. Jenny Liud in the United States (1850). 

8. Admission of California (Sept. 9, 1850). 

9. Fugitive Slave Bill (Sept. 10, 1850.) 

10. Slave Trade Abolished in the District of Columbia (Sept. 18, 1860.) 

11. Arrival of Louis Kossuth (1850). 

12. Cuban Filibusters (1852). 

13. Death of Henry Clay (June 28, 1852) 

14. Death of Webster (Oct. 24, 1852). 

15. Presidential Election (1852). 



UNITED STATKS UJSTOHY OUTLINES. 23 

Electoral College, 296. States Voting, 31. 

[DEMOCRATIC] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, 1853— March 4, 1857. 

"The Most Accomplished Orator of all his Predecessors." 

President : _ Vice-President : 

Franklin Pierce, N. H. William R. King, Ala. 

Chief Justice : 
Roger B. Taney, Md. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— William L. "arcy, N. Y. 
Secretary of Treasury— James Guthrie, Ky. 
Secretary of War— Jefferson Davis, Miss. 
Secretary of Navy— James C Dobbin, N. C. 
Secretary of Interior— Robert McClelland, Mich. 
Attorney General— Caleb Cushing, Mass. 
Postmaster General— James Campbell, Pa. 

Topics : 

1. The " Gadsden Purchase" (1853). 

2. The " Martin Koszta Affair " (1853). 

3. The Mississippi Valley and Pacifie Railroad Scheme (1853). 

4. The Crystal Palace (July 14, 1853). 

5. Kane again in the Arctic Regions (1854). 

6. Personal Liberty Bills (1854). 

7. John Bro^vn in Kansas (1854—0). 

8. Treaty with Japan (March, 1854). 

9. Gen. Walker's Filibusters (1854—58). 

10. Know-Nothing Party (1854). 

11. Kansas-Nebraska Bill (May 3e, 1854). 

12. The Brooks-Sumner Trouble (1850). 

13. Organization of the Republican Party (1856). 

14. Presidential Election (1850), 

15. Further Reduction of the Tariff (1857). 



24 UNITED STATKS HiaTORV OUTLINES. 

Electoral College, 296. .States Voting, 31. 

[DEMOCRATIC] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, ISST— Marrh 4, I8<i]. 

"The Fird Bachelor President." 

President : Vice-President : 

James Buchanan, Pa. John C. Breckinridge, Ky. 

Chief Justice : 
Koger B. Taney, Md. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— Lewis Cas.s, Mich. 

Jeremiah S. Black, Pa. (Dec. 17, i860.) 
Secretary of Treasury— Howell Cobb, Ga. 

Philip F. Thomas, Md. (Dec. 12, 1860.) 
John A. Dix, N. Y. (Jan. 11, 1861.) 
Secretary of War— John B. Floyd, Va. 

Joseph Holt, Ky. (Jan. 18, 1861.) 
Secretary of Navy— Isaac Toucey, Conn. 
Secretary of Interior— Jacob Thompson, Miss. 
Attorney General— Jeremiah S. Black, Pa. 

Edward M. Stanton, Pa. (Dec. 20, 1860.) 
Postmaster General— Aaron V. Brown, Tenn. 

Joseph Holt, Ky. (March 14, 1859.) 
Horatio King, N. H. (Feb. 12, 1861.) 

Topics : 

1. The Dred-Scott Decision (March 5, 1857). 

2. Brigham Young in Utah (1857). 

3. The Great Question of Negro Slavery Seriously Threatens to Des- 

troy the Federal Union (1857). 

4. Minnesota Admitted (May ii, 1858). 

5. The Atlantic Cable Laid (Aug. 16, 1858). 

6. Oregon Admitted (Feb. 14, 1859). 

7. John Brown's In.surrection at Harper's Ferry (Oct. 16, 1859). 

8. The Japanese Embassy (i860). 

9. The Great Eastern Arrives at New York (June 28, 1860). 

10. Disruption of the Democratic Party (i860). 

11. Presidential Election (1800). 

12. South Carolina Seceded (Dec. 20, 1860). 

13. The Star of the West Kired Upon (Jan. 9, 1861). 

14. Kansas Admitted (Jan. 29, 1861). 

15. Organization of the Southern Confederacy (Feb. 4, 1861). 

16. Peace Convention at Washington (Feb. 4, 1861). 

17. The Morrill Tariff" Bill (1861). 



UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 25 

Electoral College, 303. States Voting, 33. 

[REPUBLICAN] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, 1861 - March 4, 1865. 

''Honest Abe." 

President : Vice-President : 

Abraham Lincoln, 111. Hannibal Hamlin, Me. 

Chief Justice: 
Koger B. Taney, Md. 

Died Oct. 12, 1864. 

Salmon P. Chase, O. (Dec 6, 1864). 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— William H. Seward, N. Y 
Secretary of Treasury— Salmon P. Chase, O. 

William P. Fesseiiden, Me. (July 1, 1864). 
Secretary of War — Simon Camorou, Pa. 

Edwin M. Stanton, Pa. (July 15, 1862). 
Secretary of Navy— Gideon Welles, Conn. 
Secretary of Interior— Caleb B. Smith, Ind. 

John P. Usher, Ind. (Jan. 8, 1863.) 
Attorney General— Edward Bates, Mo. 

James Speed, Ky. (Dee. 14, 1864.) 
Postmaster General— Montgomery Blair, Md. 

William Dennison, O. (Sept. 24, 1864.) 

Topics : 

1. Confederate Peace Commission (April, I86i). 

2. Bombardment of Fort Sumter (April 12, 1861.) 

8. Lincoln's Call for 75,000 Volunteers (April 15, 1861). 

4. The Bull Run Skedaddle (July 21, 1861). 

5. The War in Missouri and Kansas (1861 — 4). 

6. The "Trent Attair" (Nov. 8, 1861). 

7. The First Battle Between Iron Ships (March 9, 1862). 

8. Battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Lauding (April 6 and 7, 1862). 

9. The Sioux War (1802—3), 

10. Negroes Recognized in Courts of Justice (July 2, 1862). 

11. Conflscation of Confederate Property (July 16, 1862). . 

12. Emancipation of Slaves (Jan. 1, 1863). 

13. Conscription Act (March 3, 1863). 

14. Arrest and Banishment of Hon. C. L. Vallandigham (1863). 

15. West Virginia Admitted (June 20, 1863). 

16. Battle of Gettvsburg, (July 1— :i, 1863). 

17. Fall of Vicksburg (July 4, 1863.) 

18. John Morgan's Raid (July, 1863). 

19. Suspension of Writ of Habeas Corpus (Sept. 15, 1863). 

20. Lincoln's Great Speech at Gettysburg (Nov., 1863). 

21. The Third Lieutenant General (March 12, 1864). 

22. Nevada .\dmitted (Oct. 31, 1864). 

23. Presidential Election (1864). 

24 Sherman's March to the Sea (1864). 

25. The .\hibamaand Kearsarge (1864). 

26. Louisiana Under Federal Control (1864). 



26 UNITED STATES HISTORV OUTLINES. 

^Electoral College, 233. tStatea Voting, 25. 

[REPUBLICAN] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, 1865— March 4, 1869. 

"With Malice Tmvard None, With Charity for All." 

President : Vice-President : 

Abraham Lincoln, 111. Andrew Johnson, Tenn. 

Died April 15, 1865. 

Andrew Johnson (April 15, 1865). 

Chief Justice : 

Salmon P. Chase, O. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— William A. Seward, N. Y. 
Secretary of Treasury— Hugh McCulloch, Ind. 
Secretary of War— Edwin M. Stauton, Pa. 

Ulysses S. Grant, 111., ad int. (Aug. 12, 1867.) 
Edwin M. Stanton, Pa. (Jan. 13, 18G8.) 
John M. Schofleld, Mo. (May 29, 1868.) 
Secretary of Navy— Gideon Welles, Couu. 
Secretary of Interior— John P. Usher, Ind. 

James Harlan, Iowa (May 15, 1865.) 
Orville H. Browning, 111. (July 27, 1866.) 
Attorney General— James Speed, Ky. 

Henry M. Stanherry, O. (July 23, 1866.) 
William M. Evarts, N. Y. (July 15, 1868.) 
Fostmaster General— William Dennison, O. 

Alexander W. Randall, Wis. (July 25, 1866.) 

Topics : 

1. Fall of Richmond (April 3, 1865). 

2. Lee's Surrender at Appomattox (April 9, 1865). 

3. Assassination of Lincoln (A[iril 14, 1865). 

4. Joseph E. Johnston's Siirrendor (•■ipril 26, 1865). 

5. Capture of Jett'erson Davis (May 10, 1865). 

6. Amnesty Proclamation (May 29, 1865). 

7. Trouble between Congress and the President (1865—8). 

8. Public Debt S2, 700,000,000 (June, 1865). 

9. Xlllth Amendment (Dec. 18, 1865). 

10. Civil Rights Bill (April 9, 18C6). 

11. The Atlantic Cable (1860). 

12. Impeachment Trial of the President (1867—8). 

13. Reconstruction Act (March 2, 1867). 

14. Tenure-of-Ofiice Bill (March 2, 1867). 

15. Nebraska Admitted (March 1, 1867). 

16. Purchase of Alaska (Oct., 1867). 

17. The Irod-CladOath (1867). 

18. The Virginius Difficulty (1868). 

19. XlVth Amendment (July ?0, 1868). 

20. I'residential Election (18C8). 

21. The Bnrliughame Embassy (1868). 



*8i apportioned among seceded States. 
JSeceded States, ii. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 27 

I Electoral College, 294. '= States Voting, 34. 

I REPUBLICAN] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March J, 1869— March i, 1873. 

** The Hero of Appomattox." 

President : Vice-President : 

U. S. Grant, 111. Schuyler Colfax, Ind. 

Chief Justice : 
Salmon P. Chase, Ohio. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— Elihu B. Washburn, 111. 

Hamilton Fish, N. Y., (March 16, 1869.) 
Secretary of Treasury— Alexander T. Stewart, N. Y. 

George S. Boutwell, Mass. (March 12, 1869.) 
Secretary of War— John A. Rawlins, 111. 

William W. Belknap, Iowa, (Nov. 1, 1869.) 
Secretary of Navy— Adolph E. Borie, Pa. 

George M. Robeson, N. J. (June 25, 1869.) 
Secretary of Interior— Jacob D. Cox, Ohio. 

Columbus Delano, Ohio, (Nov. 1, 1870.) 
Attorney General— E. R. Hoar, Maes. 

A. T. Ackermau, Ga. (July 8, 1876.) 
Postmaster General— Geo. H. Williams, Oregon, (Jan. 9, 1872.) 
John A. J. Creswell, Md. 

Topics : 

1. Completion of the Pacific Railroad ( [1914 miles] 1869.) 

2. Reconstruction of Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas (1869.) 
8. Death of E. M, Stanton (Dec. 24, 1869.) 

4. The San Domingo Question (1869.) 
6. XVth Amendment (March 30, 1870.) 

6. Signal Service Bureau Established (1870.) 

7. Repeal of the Iron-Clad Oath, and the Income Tax Law (1870.) 

8. Burning of Chicago (Nov. 8 and 9, 1871.) 

9. The Modoc War (1872.) 

10. The "Geneva Award " (1872.) 

11. Credit Mobilier (Dec. 1872.) 

12. Presidential Election. 

13. Death of Horace Greeley (Nov. 29, 1872.) 

14. Final Settlement of Northwest Boundary of U.S. by Emperor of 

Germany (1872.) 

15. Act Demonetizing Silver (1872.) 

* States not counted, 3. 

X Virginia, Texas, and Mississippi Colleges not counted. 



28 UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 

Electoral College, 366. States Voting, 37. 

[REPUBLICAN] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, 1873— March 5, 1877. 

'^Unconditional Surrender." "The Silent Man." 

President : Vice-President : 

U. S. Grant, 111. Henry Wilson, Mass. 

[Died Nov. 22, 1875. J 

Chief Justice: 

Salmon P. Chase, O. 

Died May 7, 1873. 

Morrison R. Waite (Jan. 21, 1874.) 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— Hamilton Fish, N. Y. 
Secretary of Treasury — William A. Richardson, Mass. 

Benjamin H. Bristow, Ky. (June 2, 1874.) 
Lot M. Morrill, Me. (July 7, 1S76.) 
Secretary of War— William W. Belknap, Iowa. 

Alphonso Taft, O. (March 9, 1876.) 
J. Donald Cameron, Pa. (May 22, 1876.) 
Secretary of Navy— George M. Robeson, N. J. 
Secretary of Interior— Columbus Delano, O. 

Zacbariah Chandler, Mich. (Oct. 19, 1875.) 

Attorney General— George H. Williams, Oregon. 

Edward Pierrepout, N. Y. (April 26, 1875). 
Alphonso Taft, O. (May 22, 1876.) 
Postmaster General— John A. J. Creswcll, Md. 

Marshall Jewell, Conn. (Aug. 24, 1874.) 
James M. Tynuer, Ind. (July 18, 1876.) 

Topics : 

1. Failure of Jay Cooke (1873). 

2. Financial Panic (Sept., 1873). 

3. Railroad Strike (1873). 

4. The National Grange Movement (1873). 

5. Ring Robberies (1875). 

6. Death of Henry Wilson (Nov. 22, 1875). 

7. Resumption Act Passed (1876). 

8. The Sioux War (1876). 

9. The Centennial Exposition (1876). 

10. Dom Pedro II. 

11. Presidential Election (187C). 

12. Colorado Admitted (Ang. i. 1876). 
X3. The Joint High Commission (1877). 



UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 29 

Electoral College, 369. States Voting, 38. 

[REPUBLICAN] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 5, 1877— March 4, 1881. 

"5e Serves His Party Best, Who Serves His Country Best." 

President : Vice-President : 

Rutherford B. Hayes, (). William A. Wheeler, N. Y. 

Chief Justice : 
Morrison R. Waite, O. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— William M. Evarts, N. Y. 
Secretary of Treasury— John Sherman, O. 

Alexander Ramsey (Dec. 10, 1879.) 
Secretary of War— George W. McCrarey, Iowa. 

Nathan Goff, W. Va. (Jan. 6, 1881). 
Secretary of Navy— Richard W. Thompson, Ind. 
Secretary of Interior— Carl Schurz, Mo. 
Attorney General— Charles E. Devens, Mass. 
Postmaster General— David M. Key, Tenn. 

Horace Maynard, Tenn. (June 2. 1880.) 

Topics : 

1. Quasi Civil War in South Carolina (1877). 

2. The Louisiana Election Difficulties (1877). 

3. The Great Railroad Strike (1877). 

4. Grant's Tour Around the World (1877—1880). 

5. The Nez Perces Indians (1877). 

6. Civil Service Measures (1878). 

7. The Bland Silver Bill (Feb. 21, 1878). 

8. The Murphy Movement (1878). 

9. Death of W. C. Bryant (June 12, 1878). 

10. The Yellow Fever Epidemic (1878). 

11. The Chinese Question (1879). 

12. Resumption of Specie Payment (Jan. i, 1879). 

13. Presidential Election (1880). 

14. Treaty with China (1880). 



30 UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 

Electoral College, 369. States Voting, 38. 

[REPUBLICAN] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, 1881— March 4, 1885. 

" The Teacher President." 

President : - Vice-President : 

James A. Garfield, O. Chester A. Arthur, N. Y. 

Chester A. Arthur, N. Y. 

Chief Justice: 
Morrison K. Waite, O. 

Cabinet : 

Secretary of State— James G. Blaine, Maine. 

F. F. Frehlinghuyseu, N. Y. (Dec. 12, 1881.) 

Secretary of Treasury— William Windom, Minn, 

Charles J. Folger, N. Y. (Oct. 27, 1881.) 
W. Q. Gresham, Ind. (Sept. 24, 1884.) 
Hugh McCulloch, Ind. (Oct. 28, 1884.) 

Secretary of War— Robert T. Lincoln, 111. 

Secretary of Navy— William H. Hunt, La. 

William E. Chandler, N. H. (April 1, 1882.) 

Secretary of Interior— Samuel J. Kirkwood Iowa. 

Heury M. Teller, Colorado, (April 6, 1882.) 

Attorney General-Wayne McVeagh, Pa. 

Benjamin H. Brewster, Pa. (Dec. 19, 1881.) 

Postmaster General— Thomas L. James, N. Y. 

Timothy O. Howe, N. Y. (Dec. 20, 1881.) 
Walter Q. Gresham, Ind. (April 3, 1883.) 
Frank Hatton, N. Y. (Oct. 14, 1884.) 

Topics : 

1. The Senatorial Dead- Lock (1881.) 

2. The Star Route Frauds (1881.) 

3. Assassination of the President (July 2, 1881.) 

4. The Great Cotton Exposition at Atlanta (1881-2.) 

5. Trial of Guiteau (1882.) 

6. The Dynamiters (1883.) 

7. Return of the Greely Expedition (1884.) 

8. Presidential Election (1884.) 

9. The World's Exposition at New Orleans (1884-5.) 

10. Completion of the Washington Monument (Feb. 21, 1885.) 



UNITED STATES HISTORY OUTLINES. 31 

Electoral College, 401. States Voting, 38. 

[DEMOCRATIC] 

ADMINISTRATION. 

March 4, 1885-March 4, 188—. 

" A Public Office is a Public Trust" 
President : Vice-President : 

Grover Cleveland, N. Y. Thomas A. Hendricks, Ind. 

Chief Justice : 
Morrison R. Waite, Ohio. 
Cabinet : 

Secretary of State- 
Thomas F. Bayard, Del. 
Secretary of Treasury- 
Daniel Manning, N. Y. 
Secretary of War- 
William C. Eudieott, Mass. 
Secretary of Navy— 

William C. Whitney, N. Y. 
Secretary of Interior- 
Lucius Q. C. Lamar, Miss. 
Attorney General- 
Augustus H. Garland, Ark. 
Postmaster General- 
William F. Vilas, Wis. 

Topics : 

1. Civil Service Reform. 

2. Bartholdi's " Liberty Enlightening the World,' (1885). 

3. Niagara Park presented to the Union by New York State. (July 

15, 1885). 

4. Death of Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. (July 23, 1885). 



QUESTIONS 

ON 

UNITED STATES HISTORY. 



1. Who were the Mound Builders? 

2. Name and locate four of their most noted monu- 
ments. 

3. Name the captors of Major Andre. 

4. What reward did they receive? 

5. How many voyages were made by Columbus? 

6. Why was the Western Continent named America 
instead of Columbia ? 

7. Who was John Eliot, and what made him famous? 

8. Name the original thirteen colonies, and give date 
of settlement of each. 

9. Who were the ' ' Filibusters " ? 

10. Name the ' bachelor" Presidents. 

1 1 . When and by whom was the Mississippi discovered ? 

12. Name and give date of the first permanent English 
settlement in North America. 

13. What nations probably discovered the Western 
Continent prior to the voyage of Columbus? 

14. How long did President Harrison live after his 
inauguration ? 

15. When was gold discovered in California? 

16. Write a short sketch of the life of Roger Williams. 

17. State briefly the cause of the French and Indian 
War. 

18. When and where was the treaty made which ended 
this war? 



34 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

19. What was the Crystal Palace ? 

20. When did the great Railroad Riots occur ? 

21. What was the " Starving Time " ? 

22. What brilliant feat in navigation did Ferdinand 
Magellan perform ? When ? 

23. Where and when did Benedict Arnold commit 
treason against his government? 

24. Who undertook to capture Arnold, and what was 
the success of the scheme ? 

25. Which are the "Martyr Presidents," and why so 
called ? 

26. What is the most plausible theory of the origin of 
the Indian race in North America? 

27. How did the New England States receive the 
name? 

28. Who invented the steamboat, and when did the 
first steamship cross the Atlantic ? 

29. Describe the voyage of the Mayflower. 

30. What Presidents have died in office ? 

31. Who were the Huguenots, and what part of the 
United States did they settle ? 

32. What treaty closed Queen Anne's War? 

33. What was the " Boston Tea Party "? 

34. When was the Stars and Stripes adopted by Con- 
gress ? 

35. Describe Washington's crossing the Delaware. 

36. Under whose administration was Alaska purchased, 
and what was the price paid for it? 

37. When was the Pacific Railroad completed, and why 
was its completion so eagerly sought by the people ? 

38. What was the ' ' Ostend Manifesto " ? 

39. What father and son have been Presidents of the 
United States, and how long a terra did each serve ? 

40. When and by whom was the Postal System or- 
ganized ? 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 35 

41. Name and locate the great family of Indians that 
excelled all the Northern tribes in the arts of war, govern- 
ment, and agriculture. 

42. What was the Electoral Commission ? 

43. Give a short sketch of the Modoc War. 

44. Who discovered the Pacific Ocean ? When ? 

45. Give dates of the founding of Harvard and Yale 
Colleges. 

46. What was the first State admitted into the Union? 

47. Who was the oldest President? 

48. When and by whom was Lake Champlain discov- 
ered? 

49. Locate and give date of the first permanent Dutch, 
English, Spanish, and French settlements in North 
America. 

50. What was the ' ' Dred Scott " decision ? 

51. When and by whom was the sewing machine in- 
vented ? 

52. When was the first newspaper printed in the colo- 
nies ? 

53. When did the Wesleys and Whitefield visit the 
colonies ? 

54. When and by whom was Pennsylvania settled ? 

55. Which was the last of the thirteen Colonies set- 
tled? When? 

56. Write a short sketch of the Negro plot in New 
York. 

57. What States were admitted into the Union in 1845 ? 

58. Who are the Mormons, and when did they found 
Salt Lake City ? 

59. When, and under what circumstances, was West 
Virginia made a State ? 

60. What was the "Resumption of Specie Payment," 
and when did it take place ? 

61. When and by whom was President Garfield assas- 
sinated ? 



36 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

62. When was the Niagara Suspension Bridge com- 
pleted '? 

63. When was the first treaty made between the 
United States and Japan ? 

64. Who was tried in 1844 for treason against his 
State, sentenced to imprisonment for life, released within 
three years, and was afterwards restored to political 
rights ? 

65. Whose vote invalidated the impeachment of Presi- 
dent Johnson ? 

66. How did the vote of the Senate stand ? 

67. State the three kinds of colonial governments. 

68. Under which form had the people the greatest 
political rights? 

69. Who was the last of the Dutch governors of New 
York ? 

70. When and where convened the first representative 
legislature that ever sat in America ? 

71. When was the Fifteenth Amendment formally 
announced ? 

72 State in substance this Amendment. 

73. Give an account of the first election of Jefferson to 
the Presidency. 

74. What was the most important battle of the Revo- 
lution ? 

75. When was the first union of any of the colonies? 

76. Who served as a United States Senator for thirty 
years from the State of Missouri ? 

77. Who wrote "Uncle Tom's Cabin," and what in- 
fluence had the work on United States history ? 

78. Between what cities was the first telegraph line 
established, and what was the first dispatch sent over it? 

79. What is known as the "Ordinance of '87 " ? 

80. What are the remarkable features of this Ordi- 
nance ? 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 37 

81. Who were tlie committee appointed to draft the 
Declaration of Independence ? 

82. Who invented the cotton gin, and what influence 
had it on the nation ? 

83. What generals have become Presidents ? 

84. In how many and what ways has the United States 
Government acquired territory ? 

85. Who was the first Presidential candidate of tlie 
Republican party ? 

86. Who were the persons hanged for participating in 
the conspiracy against President Lincoln and Cabinet? 

87. Why are Representatives in Congress elected for 
two years, and United States Senators for six ? 

88. Name the States that formed the Southern Con- 
federacy in the order of their secession . 

89. Which State was first restored to the Union ? 

90. State briefly the "Monroe Doctrine." 

91. Write a sketch of the life of John Paul Jones. 

92. Who discovered the Ohio River ? When ? 

93. What important treaty was made in 1783? 

94. State in what particulars this treaty was impor- 
tant. (See 192.) 

95. When were these cities founded : New Orleans, 
Boston, Philadelphia, New York, St. Louis, and Chicago ? 

96. Name some of the prominent Generals of the Revo- 
lution. 

97. Under what circumstances was the " Star Spangled 
Banner" composed ? 

98. Name the five States admitted under Monroe's ad- 
ministration. 

99. What is the most perplexing question debated in 
American politics ? 

100. When was Negro slavery introduced into the 
colonies ? 

101. Who was the first American baronet? 



3g UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

102. Under what circumstances was the title conferred ? 

103. What was the first book written in America ? 

104. What were the principles taught by Roger Wil- 
liams, which caused his banishment by the General Court 
from Salem colony ? 

105. In what year was the Hudson River discovered ? 

106. Where was New Sweden, and when settled? 

107. What was the last battle in the "Second war of 
American Independence"? 

108. Who made the first proposition in Congress to 
restrict slavery ? 

109. When was fought the battle of Shilo, and what 
noted Confederate General was killed there ? 

110. Why is Shilo considered one of the great battles 
of the Civil War ? 

111. Describe briefly " Morgan's Raid." 

112. For what is Charles Goodyear celebrated in 
United States history ? 

113. What three cities have been seats of the Federal 
Government ? 

114. What was the subject of the great debate between 
Webster and Hayne ? 

115. When was the Emancipation Proclamation issued ? 

116. When did it become effective ? 

1J7. When was the Hartford Convention called, and 
for what purpose ? 

118. Who were the Presidential candidates in 1880? 
Who was elected ? 

119. What connection has the name of Blennerhasset 
with U. S. history? 

120. What was the "Grand Model," and by whom 
prepared ? 

121. Who were ' ' Monmouth's Rebels" ? 

122. Relate briefly the story of ' ' Braddock's Defeat." 

123. What was the first product shipped from New 
England to Europe ? 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 39 

124. Describe the Salem witchcraft. 

125. Who were the President and Vice-President of 
the Southern Confederacy in 1861? 

126. What was the * ' Conway Cabal " ? 

127. Kelate the story of " Capt. Mollie Pitcher." 

128. When was Shay's Rebellion ? 

129. Who was the "old man eloquent" ? 

130. What was the origin of Clay's expression, "I 
would rather be right than be President " ? 

131. Name and give dates of three important naval 
engagements in the war of 1812. 

132. Give in substance the " Fishery Dispute." 

133. Name five important events under Jefferson's 
administration. 

134. Who was the youngest President ? 

135. Name three Presidents whose deaths have oc- 
curred on July 4th. 

136. What three great statesmen died while Taylor and 
Fillmore were Presidents ? 

137. Where and when was the first child born of 
English parents in North America ? 

138. Give origin of the "Know-Nothing" party. 

139. How and when was Florida acquired by the 
United States? 

140. When was the Erie Canal built ? 

141. When was the first steam railway constructed in 
the United States ? 

142. Who was ' ' Old Hickory " ? 

143. What was the Nullification Act ? 

144. Who is the author of " Millions for defense, but 
iiot one ceuu for tribute " ? 

1 45. When was the ' ' Patriot War " ? Why so called ? 

146. What territory was comprised in the Louisiana 
purchase ? 

147. Why did Napoleon desire to dispose of Louisiana 
to the United States ? 



40 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

148. What causes led to the war with Mexico ? 

149. How often and at what times was Henry Clay a 
Presidential candidate ? 

150. Who once lacked but one vote to make himself 
President, and afterwards was condemned to a felon's cell? 

151. State the leading causes of the Civil War? 

152. For what is the military career of Gen. Green 
noted ? 

153. Who were the Presidential candidates in the 
"Centennial year," and how many electoral votes did 
each receive ? 

1 54. Name four popular American historians, giving 
place and date of birth of each, 

155. What is known as the "Hard Cider and Log 
Cabin Campaign " ? 

156. Who were the Hessians? 

157. Relate the events of the Civil War in the year 
1861. 

158. Who was Capt. Nathan Hale? 

159. Write a short sketch of the life of Horace Greeley. 

160. Where, when, and how was the English General 
Ross killed ? 

161. What, to the Americans, was the darkest period 
of the Revolution ? 

162. What battle of the Revolution is ranked as one of 
the "Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World " ? 

163. What was the turning point of the Civil War? 

164. What was the decisive battle of the war of 1812? 

165. What events in American history have occurred 
on April 19th? 

166. Which Presidents did not take the oath of office 
on the 4th of March ? 

167. Who is called the "Path-Finder of the Rocky 
Mountains"? 

168. Who is the author of "This is a nation and not a 
league"? 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 41 

169. Which President was called "The Railsplitter"? 

170. What tribes of Indians composed " The Six 
Nations " ? 

171. Who introduced the celebrated resolutions of 
1765 in the House of Burgesses of the Virginia Colony? 

172. What memorable words were uttered on this 
occasion by the person referred to in the above question ? 

173. What American General Avas suspected of having 
purposely fallen into the hands of the British in 1776. 

174. Relate the story of the death of Col. Elmer E. 
Ellsworth. 

175. How was slavery abolished in the United States? 

176. When, where, and to whom did Gen. Robt. E. 
Lee surrender? 

177. Sketch briefly the military career of Stonewall 
Jackson. 

178. When and by whom were used these words : 
" Don't give up the shij) " ? 

179. Relate the difficulties with France in Adams's 
administration. 

180. What were the memorable words of Gen. Stark 
at the battle of Bennington ? 

181. What were the Alien and Sedition ? 

182. What was the Mutiny Act ? 

183. What was the Stamp Act ? 

184. What was the Boston Port Bill ? Writs of As- 
sistance ? 

185. When did the first English women come to Vir- 
ginia ? 

186. Name in order, with the proper dates, the Four 
Colonial Wars. 

187. Who was Col. Tarleton ? 

188. What noted foreigners served as officers in the 
American army in the War of the Revolution ? 

189. Name ten prominent Confederate Generals. 



42 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

190. Name ten prominent Federal Generals. 

191. When and on what occasion was organized the 
society known as " The Cincinnati"? 

192. Relate briefly the campaign of Gen. George 
Rogers Clark. 

193. When and where was signed the treaty ending 
the War of the Revolution ? 

194. When and where was Washington inaugurated 
first President ? 

195. Name Washington's Cabinet. 

196. What was the Wilmot Proviso ? 

197. Quote a noted sentence from President Lincoln's 
second inaugural address. 

198. What decisive measures were taken against Na- 
poleon III. at the close of the Civil War ? 

199. What were the Sanitary and Christian Commis- 
sions ? 

200. Relate the Trent Affair. 

201. State four important political questions which 
have been at issue at any period since 1790. 

202. Give dates of the following : Adoption of the 
Constitution; founding of St. Augustine, and the admis- 
sion of California. 

203. State something of the origin of "Mason and 
Dixon's Line." 

204. Describe the " Battle of the Iron-ships." 

205. Who were Presidential candidates in 1860? 

206. Give the Missouri Compromise. 

207. State the clauses of the Omnibus Bill. Who was 
its author ? 

208. Relate the voyage of Sir Francis Drake. 

209. What noted person, belonging to one of the royal 
families of Europe, visited the United States during John 
Adams's administration ? 

210. Name the four Dutch Governors of New York. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 43 

211. What was Clay's compromise of 1833 ? 

212. What question of dispute arose between Great 
Britain and the United States in 1852 ? (See 132.) 

213. What is the origin of the stripes on the flag of 
the United States ? 

214. Why are there six white and seven red stripes on 
the national banner ? 

215. What State is called the "Mother of Pres- 
idents"? Name the Presidents chosen from it. 

216. When did New York come permanently under 
English rule ? 

217. What colony first established religious tolerance ? 

218. Who was the Paul Jones of the Civil War ? 

219. The winter of what year is noted as the coldest 
in the history of the United States? 

220. When was the great fire in New York City ? 

221. When and by whom was the Smithsonian In- 
stitute founded ? 

222. Which President did not use the veto power ? 

223. In what year occurred the " falling of the stars"? 

224. Who were the National Republicans? 

225. When was the office of Postmaster-General 
created ? 

226. Who was the first Secretary of the Interior ? 

227. Which President received every electoral vote 
but one ? 

228. In what year was the great earthquake of the 
Mississippi valley ? 

229. Who was Commander-in-Chief of the American 
forces at the beginning of the war of 1812 ? 

230. What daring deed in the Shenandoah Campaign 
is related of Stonewall Jackson ? 

231. What popular error exists as to the place of 
Lee's surrender to Grant ? 

232. What was the Brooks-Sumner difficulty ? 



44 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

233. Why is Virginia called the " Old Dominion "? 

234. What was the Conscription Act ? 

235. Name the first three Lieutenant-Generals. 

236. When was established the first National Bank ? 

237. When did the United States declare war against 
England the second time ? 

238. What is said of the Etna Furnace at Ironton, 
Ohio ? 

239. Who was John Henry ? 

240. Name six Indian Chiefs noted in American 
history. 

241. With what event is the name of each partic- 
ularly connected? 

242. What American Colonel, who afterwards became 
General of the army, addressed his soldiers upon the 
battle-field at Bridge water ? 

243. Which was the last to die of the signers of the 
Declaration of Independence ? When did his death occur ? 

244. When was the Act abolishing the slave trade 
passed by Congress? When did it go into effect? 

245. When was fought the battle of Tippecanoe? 
What was the result ? 

246. What was the Expunging Resolution, and when 
passed ? 

247. What was the origin of ^^ fifty-four forty or fight" ? 

248. What was President Lincoln's first call for troops? 

249. Who was the last Confederate General to 
surrender ? 

250. Who was the first American Admiral ? 

251. What class of topics in history is most important ? 

252. Where and when occurred the battle of Five 
Forks ? 

253. What four Secretaries of the Treasury have made 
for themselves great reputations in that office ? 

254. What is Fortress Monroe noted for in history ? 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 45 

255. Relate the circumstances under which General 
Sedgwick was killed. 

256. What two persons, born the same year, twice 
competed with each other for the Presidency ? 

257. What were the last words of John Quincy Adams ? 

258. What battle occurred when both armies were 
marching to make a night attack upon each other ? 

259. Name the trees celebrated in United States history. 

260. What General rushed into battle without orders 
and won it? 

261. What was the " Great Senatorial Trio"? 

262. Name the retreats famous in United States history. 

263. By what treaty was the Mississippi River made 
the western boundary of the United States ? 

264. What naval commander captured his antagonist 
as his own vessel was sinking? 

265. What battle was preceded by prayer ? 

266. What battle was fought and gained without a 
commanding officer ? 

267. Name four ex-Presidents who died between 1860 
and 1870, 

268. What celebrated statesman and philosopher was 
called "Poor Richard"? 

269. How many invasions of the North did General 
Lee make? 

270. Name the battles that checked each of General 
Lee's northern invasions. 

271. What ex- Vice-President was tried for treason? 

272. What President-elect entered the Capitol in 
disguise ? 

273. What general left his wooden leg on the field 
of battle ? 

274. Who were the ' ' Hunkers " ? 

275. Who were the ' ' Barnburners" ? 

276. Where is the " Cradle of Liberty "? 



46 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

277. In the attack on and capture of what Fort did the 
Commander order his men to charge with unloaded guns 
and fixed bayonets ? 

278. What American General once made his escape 
from the enemy by plunging on horseback down a danger- 
ous cliff? 

279. Name the Presidents who were poor boys. 

280. What are the memorable features of the Battle of 
New Orleans? 

281. What was the bloodiest battle of the Civil War ? 

282. What officer lost his life from neglecting to read 
a message? 

283. When and where was a celebrated officer fired at 
fifteen times within easy rifle distance, yet was unharmed ? 

284. What treaties are celebrated in United States 
history ? 

285. What is a " protective tariff"? 

286. What was Gen. Charles Lee's words to Gen. 
Gates on the latter's taking command of the Southern 
army, 1780? 

287. Whose words are these : "I am not worth pur- 
chasing, but such as I am, the king of Great Britain is 
not rich enough to buy me." 

288. Name the Generals who commanded the Army of 
the Potomac. 

289. Name and give date of an important battle fought 
in Indiana, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, New York, 
New Jersey, and Tennessee. 

290. Where, when, and to whom was an entire army 
surrendered without the firing of a single shot ? 

291. In what war was Jefferson Davis a Lieutenant, 
and Abraham Lincoln a Captain ? 

292. When did a stone house turn the tide of battle? 
A stone wall? 

293. What was the ' ' Murphy movement " ? 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 47 

294. Of what American General was it said, " Se is 
the conqueror of the conquerors of Napoleon " f 

295. How are the tribes of Indians in the Territory 
governed ? 

296. What revenues do the Indians in the Territory 
receive from the United States ? 

297. For what are the following named persons noted : 
Thomas Blanchard, Jethro Wood, Ross Winans, Cyrus H. 
McCormick, and Graham Bell? 

298. Who were the ' ' Mugwumps " ? 

299. When was the Washington Monument begun? 
When completed? 

300. Write a short sketch of the Bartholdi Statue. 

301. Which State contains the greatest number of In- 
dians ? 

302. What were " Underground Railroads"? 

303. Name and locate two noted Confederate prisons. 

304. Name and locate two celebrated Federal prisons. 

305. By what three men was the Federalist written ? 

306. Name the three kinds of Congresses. 

307. Name four persons who came to America in the 
Mayflower. 

308. What American poem mentions them ? 

309. Name the men who constituted the Electoral Com- 
mission. 

310. When and by whom was the Annapolis Naval 
Academy established ? 

311. Who administered the oath of office to President 
Arthur? 

312. How many Atlantic Cables are there at present? 

313. Who succeeded General Grant as General of the 
Army? 

314. When did the Greely Expedition leave the 
United States, and when did it return? 

315. What date marks the birth of the nation? 



48 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

316. What noted person laid the corner stone of the 
Bunker Hill Monument ? 

317. When and where did the first Continental Con- 
gress assemble ? 

318. When, where, and by whom was the resolution 
offered which declared * ' That the United Colonies are, and of 
right ought to be, free and independent States" ? 

319. Who is the author of " To the victors belong the 
spoils " ? 

320. Who introduced the political principle of "rota- 
tion in office " ? 

321. What eminent State Rights advocate was twice 
elected to the office of Vice-President ? 

322. Relate the " Martin Koszta Afl^ir." 

323. What were the last words of Thomas Jefierson ? 



ANSWERS 

TO 

Questions on United States History. 



1. A race of people somewhat advauced in tlie arts 
and sciences, particularly mathematics, that inhabited the 
greater part of North America prior to the Indians. They 
have left no records of their nation, other than the numer- 
ous mounds and fortifications scattered througliout the 
continent. 

2. Fort Ancient in Warren County, Ohio. The Big 
Elephant Mound in Grant County, Wisconsin. The 
Grave Creek Mound near Wheeling, West Virginia. The 
Great Serpent Mound in Adams County, Ohio. 

3. John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van 
Wart. 

4. Each was awarded a pension of $200 for life by 
Congress, and a silver medal of honor, bearing on one side 
the motto " Fidelity," on the other side, " Tlie love of 
country conquers." 

5. Four; in 1492, 1493, 1498, and in 1502. 

6. The first written account of the new world was 
published by a German geographer named Waldsce-Miiller, 
at Augsburg, Bavaria, from notes furnished by Americus 
Vespuccius, and in the book, the name America, feminine 
of Americus, is suggested for the new world, in honor of 
Vespuccius. 

7. John Eliot, better known as the "Apostle of the 
Indians," was a young minister who came from England 
to the Massachusetts Colony in 1631. He earnestly en- 
deavored to convert the Indians to Christianity, and to aid 



50 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

iu that work, translated the Bible into the Indian language. 

8. New Hampshire, 1G21 ; Massachusetts, 1620 ; Rhode 
Island, 1636; Connecticut, 1633; New York, 1613 
Pennsylvania, 1643; New Jersey, 1664; Delaware, 1638 
Maryland, 1634; Virginia, 1607; North Carolina, 1663 
South Carolina, 1670; Georgia, 1733. 

9. Gen. William Walker and his followers. 

Walker led an expedition against Nicaragua in the spring 
of 1855, and succeeded in placing himself at the head of 
affairs for a time, but he was soon overpowered and suffered 
military execution. 

Lopez and his followers who undertook to annex Cuba 
to the United States during Taylor's administration, were 
known as the ' ' Cuban Filibusters." 

10. James Buchannan and Grover Cleveland. 

11. In 1541, by Hernando De Soto. 

12. Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. 

13. By the Normans, under Biron, in 1001, and Lief 
Ericson and Biron in 1002; by the Welsh, under Madoc, 
about 1170; by the Venetians, under Zeno, in 1380. 

14. One month. He was inaugurated March 4, 1841, 
and died on April 4th of the same year — "killed by office- 
seekers ! " 

15. At Sutter's Mills iu the Valley of the Sacramento, 
February, 1848. 

16. Roger Williams, founder of the Baptist Church in 
America, was born iu Wales, 1606. At the age of 18 he 
entered Oxford University, and, graduating with honors, 
was ordained a minister of the Church of England, but 
afterwards joined the ranks of the Puritans. He came to 
New England in 1631, but was soon expelled from both 
Massachusetts and Plymouth colonies on account of his 
peculiar religious practices. He fled from persecution at 
Salem, where he had gone from Plymouth, to the Narra- 
gansett Indians, in the winter of 1635. Here he purchased 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 51 

lands from Canouicus, chief of the Narragansetts, and 
founded the State of Khodo Ishind, in 1636. He was for 
many years Governor of the colony, dying at Providence 
in 1683. 

17. The animosity between the French and the En- 
glish growing out of King William's, Queen Anne's, and 
King George's wars, and the claims of both the French 
and English to the Ohio Valley. 

18. In 1763, at Paris. 

19. It was a magnificent structure of iron and glass 
erected in New York City, in which the " World's Fair "* 
was held during the summer of 1853. 

20. In the summer of 1877. 

21. The winter of 1609-10, in the Virginia colony. 

22. He first circumnavigated the globe; in 1519-22. 

23. At West Point, New York, in 1780. 

It is said that a conference between the British General 
Clinton, and Arnold, was held in what is known as the 
Washington Hotel, No. 1 Broadway, New York. The 
arrangements were completed between Major Andrd on 
the part of Clinton, and Arnold, at a Mr. Smith's house 
on the night of September 21, 1780, in the vicinity of 
West Point on the Hudson. 

24. John Champe, a Sergeant Major of the American 
dragoons in New Jersey. 

Champe pretended to be a deserter from the American 
army, and going to New York City, joined a body of troops 
which Arnold was raising. By ])revious arrangements 
made with the American commander, Champe was to seize 
Arnold in the night and convey him to the American camp. 
Everything was in readiness, when Arnold suddenly re- 
moved his headquarters, and Champe's scheme failed. 
Champe afterwards made his escape to the American lines, 
when his comrades were first informed that he was not a 
deserter but a spy. 



r,2 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

25. Lincoln and Garfield. 

From their having been assassinated while in office. 

26. That they originally came from northern Asia, 
crossing into the western continent by way of Behring 
Strait, which at present is only abont 36 miles in width. 

27. In the year 1614, Capt. John Smith explored the 
coast from Penobscot to Cape Cod, and made a map of 
the region which he called New EugUxnd. 

28. Robert Fulton in 1807. 

The Savannah, from Savannah, Ga. to Liverpool, 1819. 

29. The Mayflower in company with the Speedwell, 
set sail at Plymouth, England, for the mouth of the 
Hudson River, September 6, 1620. The two vessels 
bearing the first settlers of New England, had not been 
long at sea, until the Speedwell sprung a leak, and putting 
her passengers on board the Mayflower, she returned to 
port. The Mayflower continued on her stormy journey 
till December 21, when a landing was made at a point 
since named * ' Forefather's Rock" on the coast of Massa- 
chusetts. Here the " Pilgrims," 102 persons in all, began 
the second permanent English settlement in America. 

30. Harrison, April 4, 1841; Taylor, July 9, 1850; 
Lincoln, April 15, 1865; Garfield, September 19, 1881. 

31. They were French Protestants who fled from re- 
ligious persecutions in tlieir native country under the reign 
of Henry IV., 1685. Those who came to America settled 
in most part in the Carolinas, chiefly at Charleston. Many 
of "their descendants are eminently honorable, and have 
borne a proud part in the establishment of our Republic." 

32. The Treaty of Utrecht in Holland, 1713. 

33. The destruction of 342 chests of tea on board 
British vessels in Boston Harbor, by a party of citizens 
disguised as Indians. This event occurred Dec. 16, 1773. 

34. The National Flag was adopted by Congress on 
June 14, 1777. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 53 

35. " On Christmas night, 1776, in a driving storm of 
sleet, amid drifting ice that threatened every moment 
to crush the boats, he crossed the Delaware with 2,400 
picked men, fell upon the Hessians at Trenton, in the 
midst of their festivities, captured 1,000 prisoners, slew 
their leader, and safely escaped back to camp, with a 
loss of only four men— 2 killed and 2 frozen to death." 

36. Johnson's Administration, October, 1867. 
$7,200,000 in gold. 

37. In May, 1869. 

It furnished when completed, a means of rapid transit 
between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United 
States. The journey between New York and San Fran- 
cisco can now be made in less than one week's time. 

38. It was a public declaration of the American Minis- 
ters to England, France, and Spain, met in Convention at 
Ostend, Belgium, stating " the advantages to be derived 
by Spain and the United States from the transfer of Cuba, 
at a fair price," from the former to the latter power. 

39. John Adams, from 1797 to 1801 , John Q. Adams, 
from 1825 to 1829. 

40. In 1753 by Benjamin Franklin, at which time he 
was appointed Postmaster-General. 

41. The Iroquois, or Six Nations. 

They occupied the region south of Lakes Erie and On- 
tario, extending from the Ohio River to Lake Champlain, 
and bounded on the southeast by a line nearly parallel to 
the Appalachian Mountains. 

42. It was the tribunal that decided the presidential 
contest of 1876. It was composed of five Senators, five 
Representatives, and five Judges of the Supreme Court, 
and the decision rendered two days before the close of 
Grant's term, was that Rutherford B. Hayes had received 
185 electoral votes, and Samuel J. Tilden had received 
184, thus electing Hayes to the Presidency by a majority 
of one vote ! 



54 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

43. This war was brought on through an order issued 
by the United States authorities in 1872, directing the 
removal of the Modoc Indians from their lands in Oregon 
to a reservation in Indian Territory. The Indians refused 
to be removed, and entrenching themselves in the "lava 
beds," did not submit until they had been severely bom- 
barded in their place of retreat. A council of peace was 
agreed upon in April, 1873, but while it was in session 
the Indians treacherously murdered Gen. Canby and 
Reverend Dr. Thomas, and wounded others of the Peace 
Commission. The war was then vigorously pushed by the 
United States until the last Indian surrendered, and the 
leader. Captain Jack, was tried by court-martial, con- 
demned, and hanged October 3, 1873, at Ft. Klamath. 

44. Vasco Nunez de Balboa, September 29, 1513. 

45. Harvard in Massachusetts, founded in 1638; Yale 
in Connecticut, founded in 1701 at Saybrook, but removed 
to New Haven in 1716. 

46. Vermont, March 4, 1/91. 

47. William Henry Harrison, sixty-eight years of age. 

48. In the summer of 1609, by Samuel de Champlain. 

49. The Dutch at New York in 1613 ; the English at 
Jamestown, Va., in 1607; the Spaniards at St. Augustine, 
Fla., in 1565 ; the French at Fort Royal, Nova Scotia, in 
1605. 

50. It was a decision rendered by the Supreme Court 
of the United States, through Chief Justice Taney, that 
slave owners might take their slaves into any State of the 
Union without forfeiting authority over them. Dred 
Scott was a slave who had been taken by his master into a 
free State, upon which he claimed his freedom. The 
matter was carried by Scott's friends to the Supreme 
Court, whereupon Chief Justice Taney rendered the de- 
cision as stated above, which is known as the "Dred 
Scott " decision. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 55 

51. In 1844, by Elias Howe, a native of Massachusetts. 
Howe began his experiments to invent a sewing machine 
in 1839. 

52. In 1704; TJie Bodon Neivs Letter. 

53. John and Charles Wesley in October, 1735 ; George 
Whitefield in 1739. 

54. The first permanent settlement was made at Tini- 
cum in 1643, by the Swedes. The State was founded 
by the Quakers under William Penn in 1682. 

55. Georgia. 

In 1733, at Savannah, by James Oglethorpe. 

56. "The Negro Plot," as it has been called, occurred 
in New York City in the year 1741. Several destructive 
fires, the supposed work of incendiaries, having broken 
out, suspicion was fastened on the negro slaves who formed 
a large portion of the population, by it being circulated 
that they had planned to murder the whites, and to set up 
a government of their own. Many of the negroes were 
tried and condemned under evidence given by disreputable 
witnesses, and great numbers of them were sold to foreign 
slave holders. It was afterwards doubted that any plot 
existed. 

57. Florida on March 3d ; Texas on December 29th. 
It is frequently stated that Texas was admitted on March 
1, 1845, but the statement is wrong; a joint resolution to 
annex Texas to the United States was passed March 1, 
1845, but the State was not admitted until December 29th 
of that year. 

58. A religious sect founded ])y Joseph Smith in 1830, 
at Manchester, New York. Their stronghold at present 
is Utah, particularly Salt Lake City, which they founded 
under the leadership of Brigham Young, the successor of 
Smith, in 1846. 

59. West Virginia was admitted as the 35th State of 
the Union, June 20, 1863. This State was erected out of 



56 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

that portion of the State of Virginia lying west of the Al- 
leghany Mountains, and the cause for its separate organi- 
zation grew out of the refusal of its people to secede from 
the Union when the Virginia legislature passed resolutions 
declaring the State withdrawn from the Federal compact. 

60. It was an act passed by Congress providing "for 
the redemption in coin of all legal tender notes on and 
after January 1, 1879." 

61. On July 2, 1881, in the railroad depot, at Wash- 
ington, D. C, by Charles Julius Guiteau. 

62. It was completed in 1855. 

63. In 1854, by Commodore M. G. Perry, a brother of 
the "Hero of Lake Erie." 

64. Thomas W. Dorr, the instigator of "Dorr's Rebel- 
lion " in Rhode Island. 

65. It is said that Senator B. F. Wade, of Ohio, re- 
fused to vote to impeach the President, from the fact of 
his being President pro tern, of the Senate, and on the re- 
moval of the President in this case, he would have become 
President. The Republican party blamed Edwai'd G. 
Ross, Senator from Kansas, with the failure of the im- 
peachment, from his refusing to vote with his party on 
that question. 

66. The votes cast were 35 "guilty," and 19 "not 
guilty," lacking but one vote to impeach. 

67. Provincial, proprietary, and charter. 

68. The charter. 

69. Peter Stuyvesant, September, 1664. 

70. On July 30, 1619, at Jamestown, Virginia. 

71. It was duly ratified March 30, 1870. 

72. It gives the right of suffrage to all, irrespective of 
" race, color, or previous condition of servitude." 

73. The election before the pco})le was held in the year 
1800. There were four candidates, John Adams and 
Charles C. Pinckney being the Federal candidates, and 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 57 

Thomas Jetfersoii and Aaron Burr the Anti-Federal. In 
the Electoral College, Jefferson and Burr each received 
the same number of votes, which, under the rules, threw 
the choice of President and Vice-President into the House 
of Representatives. The vote of that body on the 36th 
ballot, elected by one vote, Mr. Jefferson to the Presi- 
dency, over Aaron Burr who became the Vice-President. 

74. The battle of Saratoga, which caused the surrender ' 
of Burgoyne's army on the 17th of October, 1777. 

75. The Union of Mass., Plymouth, Conn., and New 
Haven under the title of " The United Colonies of New 
England," in the year 1643. 

76. Thomas Hart Benton, from 1820 to 1850. 

77. Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe The story appeared 
as a serial in The National Era, an anti-slavery advocate 
published at Washington. 

It was first published in book form in 1852. 

The publication of the work is considered one of the 
causes of the Civil War, and the ultimate overthrow of the 
institution of slavery in the United States. 

78. Between Baltimore and Washington, D. C. 

The first official message was the announcement of Polk's 
nomination for President, by the Democratic party, in 
convention at Baltimore, May 29, 1844. 

Miss Annie Ellsworth of Washington, who first conveyed 
the intelligence to Prof. Morse that Congress had appro- 
priated $30,000 to establish an experimental telegraph line, 
received the promise of the " mad man " in the moment of 
his great joy, that she might send the first message. Ac- 
cordingly when the line was completed between Washington 
and Baltimore, and signals had been exchanged between the 
operators at each end. Prof. Morse sent for Miss Ellsworth, 
in fulfillment of his promise, and with her own hands she 
sent this sentence, " what hath god wrought ! " — the 
first formal dispatch ever sent over a telegraphic wire con- 
necting remote places with each other. 



58 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

79. It was an act providing for the organization of the 
Northwest Territory, passed by the Last Continental Con- 
gress, July 13, 1787. It was due to the efforts of Dr. 
Cutler that the Ordinance was passed, and it is considered 
the most perfect document of the kind ever framed. Its 
principles are embodied in the constitutions of every State 
erected out of the Northwest Territory. 

80. Some of the striking features of the Ordinance are : 
" There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude 
in said Territory, other than for the punishment of crimes." 
"Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to 
good government, schools and the means of education shall 
forever be encouraged." 

* ' The said Territory and the States which may be formed 
therein, shall ever remain a part of the Confederacy of the 
United States of America." 

81. Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, 
Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. 

82. Eli Whitney, a native of Massachusetts, in 1793. 
It at once made cotton the most profitable product of the 
southern States, which created a great demand for slave 
labor in that section, and ultimately through the extension 
of slavery, brought on the Civil War. 

83. Washington, Jackson, Harrison, Taylor, Pierce, 
Grant, Hayes, Garfield, and Arthur. 

84. In four ways : by annexation, conquest, purchase, 
and treaty. '' Discovery " is often given in reference to 
the acquisition of the "Oregon country." (See answer 
146.) 

85. John C. Fremont in 1856. 

86. Lewis Payne Powell, David E. Harrold, George 
A. Atzerott, and Mrs. Mary A. Surratt. 

87. The members of the House are the direct repre- 
sentatives of the people, and in order that the will of the 
masses may not be subverted, and arbitrary measures en- 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 59 

acted, frequent opportunities to make changes of their 
representatives are given. The Senate is made a perpetual 
body, — its members are older, and as a rule more learned 
in political affairs than those of the House — it can check 
objectioual)le measures of the last named body, and is in- 
tended to be the safeguard of the nation. 

88. South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, 
Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Virginia, Tennes- 
see, and North Carolina. 

89. Tennessee, by joint resolution of Congress, July 
24, 1866. 

90. "The American Continents, by the free and inde- 
pendent position which they have assumed and maintained, 
are not to be considered as subject to future colonization 
by any foreign power." 

91. John Paul Jones (real name John Paul) was born 
in the south of Scotland, in 1747. When but a youth he 
emigrated to Virginia, and after a short career as mate of 
a slave-ship, he was appointed a lieutenant in the navy, 
and put in charge of the American prize-ship Ranger, in 
1776. After doing considerable damage to British vessels 
on the west coast of England and Scotland, he returned 
and was given command of the Bon Homme Richard. 
In September, 1779, his vessel met and captured the 
British ship Serapis, after one of the severest naval engage- 
ments of the war. In 1788 he became Rear-Admiral in the 
Russian service, but having quarreled with a Russian Ad- 
miral, he was dismissed. He died in poverty at Paris in 
1792. 

92. Robert Cavalier de LaSalle, in 1669, four years 
before Joliet and Marquette explored the Mississippi. 

93. The treaty between the United States and Eng- 
land, at Paris, September 8d. 

94. It recognized, by Great Britain, the independence 
of the United States, and gave to the latter government 



60 VNITED STATES HISTORY. 

the Northwest and Southwest Territories, extending our 
western boundary to the Mississippi. 

95. New Orleans, 1717; Boston, 1630; Philadelphia, 
1683; New York, 1613; St. Louis, 1764; Chicago, 1833. 
A fort named Dearborn was erected at the mouth of the 
Chicago river, in 1803. 

96. American Generals Washington, Greene, Lincoln, 
Gates, Morgan, Sumter, Marion, Wayne, Schuyler, 
Putnam, Knox, and Sinclair. 

97. It was composed by Francis S. Key, an American 
patriot while on a mission aboard an English vessel during 
the bombardment of Fort McHenry, a defense of the city 
of Baltimore, September 13, 1814. 

98 Mississippi, December 10, 1817 ; Illinois, Decem- 
ber 3, 1818; Alabama, December 14, 1819; Maine, 
March 15, 1820; Missouri, August 10, 1821. 

99. The "Tariff Question." 

100. In 1619, twenty negro slaves were sold to Vir- 
ginia settlers by the Dutch. This was the beginning of 
negro slavery in North America. 

101. Colonel VVilliam Pepperell who commanded the 
successful expedition against Louisburg, on Cape Breton 
Island, June 17, 1745. 

102. Louisburg was held by the French, with which 
nation England was at war, and from its btiing the strong- 
est fortification in America, and the key to New France, 
King George to reward Pepperell for its capture, created 
him a baronet. 

103. Capt. John Smith's book written in 1607-8, 
entitled, "True Relation of Vikginia." 

104. " That the title of the Massachusetts Company, 
from the king, to its lands, was not valid, but that the 
Indians were the true owners." 

"That it was 'not lawful to call a wicked person to 
swear, (or) to pray, as being actions of God's worship'." 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 61 

" That it was wrong to listen to any of the ministers of 
the Parish Assemblies in England." 

" That the civil power had no authority over the 
opinions of men." 

105. In the year 1609. 

106. It occupied the territory comprised within the 
present State of Delaware, and a portion of the present 
State of Pennsylvania, extending from the southeast corner 
to the falls at Trenton. It was purchased of the Indians 
by the Swedes, and settled by them in February, 1638. 

107. The Battle of New Orleans, January 8, 1815, was 
the last engagement on land. 

108. Thomas Jefferson, in the year 1784. 

109. April 6th and 7th, 1862. 
Genei*al Albert Sidney Johnston. 

110. Upon the result of this battle depended largely 
the fate of the Confederacy. This was the last stand 
taken by the Confederate army in defense of the Memphis 
and Charleston Railroad, over which the division of the 
army east of the Mississippi chiefly received supplies from 
Texas and the southwest. The Confederate lines had 
been beaten slowly from Columbus, Fort Henry, Fort 
Donelson, Bowling Green, Columbia, and Mill Spring, to 
a position just in front of this railroad, and here Albert 
Sidney Johnston determined to die or gain a signal victory, 
and to that end concentrated his own, and Beauregard's | 
forces from the Shenandoah, at Corinth, and made the 
attack on Sherman and Grant at Shiloh. The world knows 
the result. 

111. On the 7th of July, 1863, the successful "Confed- 
erate raider," John Morgan, with about 2,500 men, crossed 
the Ohio River at Brandenburg, Kentucky, into Indiana, 
and after sacking Corydon and Salem, turned his line of 
pillage up the river. His route as planned was to scour 
the country along the river, pass around Cincinnati, and 



62 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

recross into Kentucky at Pomeroy, Ohio. In this he 
failed, for being hotly pursued by a force under General 
Hobsou, and harassed by " home guards" along his line of 
march, he was overtaken and surrounded at New Lisbon, 
Columbiana County, Ohio, July 26th, and himself and 
most of his men made prisoners. Morgan was taken to 
Columbus and confined in the penitentiary for about four 
months, but making his escape he fled to Kentucky. He 
was soon afterwards surprised and killed while quartering 
at the house of a friend. 

112. For the invention of vulcanized India rubber. 

113. New York, Philadelphia, and Washington. 

114. The doctrine of " State Rights;" in particular, the 
"Nullification Act" of South Carolina. 

115. On September 22, 1862. 

116. On January 1, 1863. 

117. December 15, 1814. 

It was a convention of delegates from Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Connecti- 
cut, called to adopt resolutions opposing the Administra- 
tion's course in the war with England. The acts of this 
convention were so obnoxious to the people throughout the 
other States, as to entirely destroy the Federal party, the 
leaders of which were in sympathy with the convention's 
proceedings. 

118. The Democratic nominee was Gen. W. S. Han- 
cock ; the Republican nominee was Gen. J. A. Garfield ; 
the Greenback nominee was Gen. J. B. Weaver. Gar- 
field was elected, and inaugurated March 4, 1881. 

1 19. Herman Blannerhasset and his accomplished wife, 
as early as 1798, began their residence on an island in the 
Ohio River, a few miles below Marietta. Their home has 
been described by Wirt as one of matchless beauty and 
comfort. To this retreat came the crafty Aaron Burr in 
1805, and through his influence, Blannerhasset was induced 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 63 

to enter upon a scheme to establish an Empire with Burr 
at its head, in the southwestern portion of the United 
States. Burr and Blannerhasset were arrested on a charge 
of treason in 1807, but were acquitted from a lack of proof, 
although Burr's design could hardly be mistaken, Blan- 
nerhasset died on the Isle of Guernsey, in 1822. 

120. It was the constitution for the government of the 
colonists in the Carolina grant of Charles II. , King of En- 
gland, to a company of noblemen in 1663. The " Grand 
Model" was prepared by the great English philosopher, 
John Locke, assisted by Lord Shaftesbury. 

121. They were persons who were suspected by King 
James II., of England, of conspiracy with his nephew, the 
Duke of Monmouth, against him in 1685. Many persons 
so suspected were sent to Virginia and sold as indented 
servants to the planters. They were set free in Virginia 
in 1689. 

122. At the opening of the French and Indian War, 
in 1755, General Braddock was appointed Commander-in- 
Chief of the English forces and Colonial allies in America. 

Three expeditions were planned : one against Fort Du 
Quesne, one against Niagara, and one against Crown 
Point. Braddock led in person the expedition against 
Fort Du Quesne, with great military pomp and display. 
He was warned by Washington and other Colonial officers 
to guard against an Indian ambuscade, but their words 
were unheeded as ' ' coming from those unused to military 
discipline." On the morning of July 9, 1775, while in line 
of march up a narrow ridge on the Monongahela, the army 
was surprised by an ambuscade of French and Indians. 
The British forces were slaughtered in great numbers, and 
General Braddock was mortally wounded. Washington 
covered the retreat of the flying " Continentals" with the 
"Virginia hunters," and saved the army from utter de- 
struction. 



64 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

123. A cargo of sassafras root taken by Bartholomew 
Gosnold, in 1602. 

124. It was a delusion that broke out in Massachusetts 
in 1692. It was supposed that the children of a Mr. 
Parris, a minister near Salem, were under the influence 
of witches. An Indian servant was beaten until she ad- 
mitted her guilt, and soon many other persons, some of 
whom were people of great respectability, were accused of 
being in colleague with evil spirits. Many were tried and 
condemned, and the superstition was not checked until 
nearly fifty persons had been tortured and twenty hung. 
The eminent theologian, Rev. Cotton Mather, engaged 
actively in trying to root out witchcraft in New England, 
and even wrote a book treating on the subject. 

125. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, President; Alex- 
ander H. Stephens of Georgia, Vice-President. 

126. It was a conspiracy of oflicers headed by General 
Conway in 1777-8, to have Washington removed from 
command of the army, and General Horatio Gates ap- 
pointed in his stead. 

127. At the battle of Monmouth an artilleryman was 
shot at his post, when his wife, Mary Pitcher, who had 
been carrying him water, bravely took his place and used 
the gun with telling effect upon the British. From this 
incident she was afterwards called " Captain Mollie." 

128. In 1786 Daniel Shays, at the head of nearly 
2,000 armed insurgents, resisted the authorities of the 
State of Massachusetts in collecting taxes to defray the 
expenses of government, chiefly entailed during the Revo- 
lution. Shays was attacked near Springfield by a force 
under General Lincoln, and after a brief contest the in- 
surgents were dis})ersed. Shays and his followers were 
finally pardoned. 

129. John Quiucy Adams. 



UNITED STATES HISTOKY 66 

130. Clay's course on the Tariff Compromise of 1833 
was in opposition to the Whig party, to which he helonged. 
When he advanced his ideas on the Tariff Question, he 
was told that it would lose him the Presidency. His re- 
ply was, " I would rather be right than be President." 

131. The Constitution ("Old Ironsides"), and the 
Guerriere, August 9, 1812; Perry's Victory on Lake 
Erie, September 10, 1813 ; Battle of Lake Champlain, 
September 11, 1814. 

132. By the Treaty of Washington in 1870, it was 
agreed that the dispute between Great Britain and the 
United States, concerning the fisheries on the coast of 
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, should be arbitrated by a 
board of three commissioners, one member to be appointed 
by Great Britain, one by the United States, and the third 
to be chosen by these two. This Commission met at Hali- 
fax, Nova Scotia, in 1878, and awarded Great Britain 
$5,500,000. (See answer 212.) 

133. War with Tripoli, 1801 ; Louisiana Purchase, 
1803; Aaron Burr's duel, 1804; Right of Search, 1806; 
American Embargo, 1807. 

134. U S. Grant, in 1809, at the age of 47 years. 

135. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, July 4, 1826; 
James Monroe, July 4, 1831, 

136. Henry Clay, June 28, 1852; Daniel Webster, 
October 24, 1852 ; John C. Calhoun, March 31, 1850. 

137. Virginia Dare, a granddaughter of Governor 
White, of the Roanoke Colony, August 18, 1585. 

138. The American, or as it was stigmatized by its 
opponents, "Know-Nothing" party, came into existence 
in Pierce's Administration, and its chief principles were 
"Opposition to the election of Roman Catholics and per- 
sons of foreign birth to any office," and to the extension of 
slave territory. The meetings of ' ' Know-Nothings " were 
secret, and their motto "Americans for America," The 



66 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

organization grew out of the old Whig party, and was 
succeeded by the Repul)lican party in 1856. 

139. By purchase from Spain in 1819, although the 
United States did not get formal possession till 1821. The 
price paid was $5,000,000. 

140. The Erie Canal was begun in 1817, and completed 
in 1825. It connects the Great Lakes with the Hudson 
River at Albany, New York ; its length is 363 miles, and 
it cost $7,500,000. 

141. The first permanent railroad was the Baltimore 
and Ohio, built in 1828. A short line had been built in 
Massachusetts in 1826. 

142. "Old Hickory" was a name applied to Andrew 
Jackson, from his stately figure and determined will. 

143. In 1832 a Sovereign Convention of the people of 
South Carolina declared that the " Tariff Act " of Congress 
of the United States, passed in that year, "being based 
upon the principles of protection to manufacturers, and 
not upon the principle of raising revenue, was unconsti- 
tutional, and, therefore, null and void." It was further 
declared that unless said act of Congress was modified in 
conformity with the last named principle, the connection 
of the State of South Carolina with the Federal Union 
would be severed on and from February 12, 1833. (See 
answer to question 211.) 

144. Charles Coatesworth Pinckney, of South Carolina. 
In 1797, President Adams sent Mr. Pinckney, Elbridge 
Gerry of Massachusetts, and John Marshall of Virginia, 
as Special Envoys to France, to treat with that government 
on matters likely to cause trouble between the two govern- 
ments. On arriving at Paris in October, the envoys were 
refused audience by the French Minister, M. de Talley- 
rand, but were given to understand that on the payment 
of a quarter million dollars, they would be received in 
their public capacity, and all matters in dispute would be 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 67 

speedily settled. Thereupon Mr. Pinckney is credited 
with replying, " Millions for defense, but not one cent for 
tribute." 

145. In 1837, Canada being in rebellion againt Eng- 
land, a body of about 700 ' ' patriots " from the State of 
New York, attempted to render the insurgents assistance. 
They fitted out the steamer Caroline with supplies, and 
seized and fortified Navy Island, in the Niagara River. 
Here a conflict ensued between the " patriots" and a party 
of loyalists from Canada, which resulted in the setting fire 
to the Caroline, and her drifting over the Falls. The 
disturbance was quelled by the prompt action of President 
Van Buren. 

146. The northern boundary corresponded nearly to 
the present boundary between the United States and the 
British possessions. On the east it was bounded by the 
Mississippi River, except what is now a part of the State 
of Louisiana lying east of that river. On the south it 
bordered the Gulf of Mexico. The western boundary in 
the treaty made witli Spain in 1819, was defined as 
"beginning at the mouth of the Sabine River, continuing 
along its western bank to the 32° of north latitude, thence 
by a line due north to the Red River, thence up that river 
to the 100th meridian west from Greenwich, thence due 
north to the Arkansas, thence following the Arkansas to 
its source in latitude 42°, and thence by that parallel to 
the Pacific Ocean." 

The establishment of this last boundary in the treaty 
above named, changed the original territory as acquired 
from France in 1803, by giving Texas to Spain, and the 
United States receiving the " Oregon country" instead, 
thus extending our western border to the Pacific Ocean. 
The western boundary of Louisiana as acquired from 
France in 1803, was not clearly defined, but was stated as 
being the central range of the Rocky Mountains, and the 
Rio Grande River, 



68 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

147. He saw that England, from her superior naval 
forces, would wrest the territory from him, in the event of 
the threatened war between England and France, and 
being jealous of Spain from which power he had lately 
taken Louisiana, he sold the territory to the United States, 
thus putting it beyond the reach of either England or Spain. 

148. Disputed boundaries, and the annexation of 
Texas to the Federal Union. 

149. Three times. In 1824, 1834, and 1844. 

150. Aaron Burr, Vice-President during Jefferson's 
first administration. 

151. The different constructions put upon the Consti- 
tution l)y the people of the Southern and Northern States; 
the difference in occupation and products of the people of 
the two sections ; the pul)lication and distribution of sec- 
tional books ; the influence of demagogues, both North 
and South ; lastly and chiefly, the subject of negro 
slavery. 

152. He never fought a decisive battle, yet gained sub- 
stantial advantages over his enemies. 

153. The Democratic candidate was Samuel J. Tilden 
of New York ; the Republican candidate was Rutherford 
B. Hayes of Ohio ; the Greenback party nominated Peter 
Cooper of New York. Under the decision of the "Joint 
High Commission," Hayes received 185 electoral votes, 
and Tilden 184. The Greenback candidate did not re- 
ceive a single electoral vote. The votes of Florida, Lou- 
isiana, South Carolina, and Oregon were thrown out by the 
Commission, on account of alleged frauds in the elections 
of those States. 

154. George Bancroft, ]>orn at Worcester, Mass., in 
1800 ; William H. Prescott, born at Salem, Mass., in 1796; 
John Loth rop Motley, born at Dorchester, Mass., 1814; 
Jared Sparks, born at Willington Conn., 1789. 

155. The presidential campaign of 1840. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 69 

The opponents of General Harrison said that he lived 
in a " log cabin and drank hard cider." Hence the phrase. 

156. They were Germans from Hesse Cassel, hired by 
the British Government to fight the Americans. 

157. The firing on the "Star of the West;" The in- 
auguration of President Lincoln ; Capture of Fort Sumter; 
Secession of ten Southern States ; Battle of Bull Run ; 
Blockade of Southern Ports. 

158. He was a native of the State of Connecticut, an 
ardent advocate of the cause of liberty, and a commis- 
sioned officer in the War of the Revolution. He was sent 
by Washington, while his army was stationed on Long 
Island, in 177(3, to learn the intentions of Lord Howe and 
the strength of his army. While on this hazardous but 
patriotic mission, young Hale was recognized by a relative 
in the British army, and seized as a spy. He was hardly 
given the form of a trial, was condemned and executed, 
without being allowed the use of a Bible, and even his let- 
ters to his sisters and aged mother were destroyed. His 
last words were, *' I only regret that I have but one life to 
give to my country." 

159. He was born at Amherst, New Hampshire, Feb. 
3, 1811. In early life he determined to be a printer, 
and at the age of fifteen years began his trade in the office 
of "The Spectator," at East Poultney, Vt. From here he 
went to New York City, and founded the New York Tri- 
bune in 1841. He was a member of the 31st Congress, 
and was an avowed enemy of negro slavery. After the 
close of the Civil War, he earnestly advocated a speedy and 
liberal reconstruction of the Seceded States, and was one 
of the bondsmen of Jefferson Davis upon his release from 
Fortress Monroe. He was the presidential candidate of 
the Liberal Republican and Democratic parties in 1872, 
but was defeated. He died on the 29th of November, 
1872. 



70 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

160. At the attack ou the city of Baltimore, Septem- 
ber 12, 1814, by shots fired by two persons secreted in a 
tree, watching the advance of Ross and his staff of officers. 

161. The winter of 1777-78, while the army under 
Washington was encamped at Valley Forge. 

162. The surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga, 

163. The defeat of* Gen. Lee at Gettysburg, and the 
capitulation of Gen. Pemberton at_ Vicksburg, which 
occurred at the same time, July 3d and 4th, 1863. 

164. The Battle of Lake Erie in conjunction with Gen. 
Harrison's victory over Proctor and Tecumseh, at the 
Battle of the Thames. 

Gen. Jackson's victory at New Orleans was gained after 
terms of peace had been agreed upon between the United 
States and Great Britain, but the news had not reached 
Jackson or Packenham at the time of the battle. 

165. Noted events are the battles of Lexington and 
Concord, April 19, 1775. The riot in the streets of 
Baltimore April 19, 1861, when the first blood was shed of 
the Civil War. 

166. Washington, April 30, 1789 ; Monroe, March 5, 
1821 ; Taylor, March 5, 1849 ; Hayes, March 5, 1877. 
This does not include the Vice-Presidents who have suc- 
ceeded to the presdential chair through the death of the 
President. 

167. John Charles Fremont. 

168. Andrew Jackson. 

In his proclamation as President of the United States, 
issued December 11, 1832, with regard to the "Nullifica- 
tion Act," he says: "The Constitution of the United 
States, then, forms a government, not a league." 

169. Abraham Lincoln. 

Lincoln was one of the early settlers of Illinois, and 
there it was he felled trees, split rails, and fenced the 
grounds surrounding his humble log cabin. 



UNITED STATICS HISTOKV. 71 

170. Originally the Senecas, Mohawks, Oneidas, 
Cayugas, Ouoiulagas, and Tuscaroras. Later the Hurons 
and Algouquins were added. The "Six Nations" were 
collectively called Mhujoes. 

171= Patrick Henry. 

172. " Ctcsar had his Brutus, Charles I. his Cromwell, 
and George III. — may proiit by their examples! If this 
be treason, make the most of it." 

173. General Charles Lee. 

174. In May, 18(JI, the Federal troops seized Arling 
ton Heights and Alexandria, which are on the Maryland 
side of tlu- Potomac, and were formerly included in the 
District of Columbia. After the capture of Alexandria, 
Col. Ellsworth seeing the Confederate flag still flying over 
the "Marshall House," went up and took it down. At 
the foot of the stairs, as he descended, he was shot by the 
landlord, J. W. Jackson, who in turn was instantly killed 
by private Brownell. 

175. By the passage of the Xlllth Amendment to the 
Constitution, February 1, 1865, and the ratification of 
said amendment by two-thirds of the States, in December 
of that year, 

176. April 9. 1865, at the house of a Mr. McLean, 
at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, to General U. S. 
Grant. ( See answer 3B1„) 

177. He was born at Clarksburg, in what is now West 
Virginia, in 1824. In 1846 he graduated at West Point 
Military Academy, served in the Mexican War with 
marked distinction, and later became a professor in the 
Military Institute at Lexington, Virginia, where he taught 
till the opening of the Civil War. He particularly dis- 
tinguished himself in the Battle of Bull Run, from which 
he received the name " Stonewall," and in many later en- 
gagements he displayed great military talents. He was 
fired upon, through mistake, by his own men and mortally 



72 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

wounded at Chancellorsvi lie, after defeating Gen. Hooker's 
division, May 2, 1868. He lingered until the 10th of the 
month. His full name was Thomas Johnathan Jackson. 
The name "Stonewall" was given him l)y the Confederate 
Genei^al Bee, at the first Battle of Bull Run, where Jack- 
son held his conunand like a " stonewall." 

178. In the naval contest between the Shannon and the 
Gkesapeake, June 1, 1813, Captain Lawrence, the brave 
commander of the Chesapeake, after every officer on board 
was either killed or wounded, and himself " weltering in 
blood, just before expiring," gave his last command, 
' ' Don't give up Die ship ! " 

179. The troul^le with France in Adams's Administra- 
tion originated with the refusal of the United States gov- 
ernment, while Washington was President, to become the 
ally of France in her war with Great Britain. The 
French ministers Genet and Adet, both tried to en- 
list the sympathies of the people in the French struggle, 
but Washington put a timely check to their designs. 
When Adams became President he endeavored to get an 
amicable settlement of the difficulties, and appointed three 
commissioners (see answer 144) to go to France for that 
purpose. The envoys being grossly insulted by the French 
ministry, and our Hag disrespected on the seas, and our 
commerce endangered, President Adams directed vigorous 
preparations for war, but Napoleon Bonaparte coming to 
the head of affairs in France, the crisis of war was happily 
averted, and a treaty was entered into and ratified by the 
two governments. • 

180. " There are the red-coats ; we must beat them to- 
day, or Molly Stark is a widow." 

181. The Alien Act authorized the President at his 
pleasure " to order any foreigner, whom he might believe 
to be dangerous to the peace and safety of the United 
States, to depart out of the country, under very heavy 
penalty for refusing to obey the order." 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 73 

The Sedition Act made it a crime punishable under a 
very heavy penalty, for any one " to write, print, utter, or 
publish, any false, scandalous, or malicious writing, against 
either House of the Congress of the United States, or the 
President of the United States, with intent to defame, or 
to bring them, or either of them, into contempt or dis- 
repute." 

182. The British Parliament enacted in 1774 that the 
colonists in America should provide quarters and supplies 
for British troops stationed among them. This the people 
refused to do, and so exasperated were they at the King 
and Parliament, that the people of Massachusetts and New 
York even refused to sell articles of food and shelter to the 
British troops. From the furor the Act above named cre- 
ated among the colonists, it has been called the " Mutiny 
Act." Some authorities speak of it as the " Quartering 
Act." 

183. An Act passed by Parliament in 1765 ordering 
that all documents in the colonies, such as deeds, notes, 
contracts, bonds, and public documents, should be printed 
on government stamped paper. 

184. An Act passed by Parliament in 1774 closing the 
port of Boston. 

Writs of Assistance were warrants granted English offi- 
cers to search stores and private houses for smuggled 
goods. 

185. In 1619, ninety young women of good character 
came to Virginia, from England, and became wives of 
planters. Their passage was paid in tobacco by their 
husbands, at the rate of 150 pounds each. 

186. King William's War 1689-1697; Queen Anne's 
War 1702-1713; King George's War 1744-1748; French 
and Indian War 1754-1763. 

187. " He was the most active, energetic, and danger- 
ous of all the British partisan officers" who fought in the 



74 UNITED STATES. HISTORY. 

Revolution. His field of action was chiefly in South Caro- 
lina, where he met equally daring foes in the persons of 
Marion, Sumter, and Pickens. Col. Tarleton was born in 
1754, and died in 1833. 

188. The French Generals, Lafayette, De Kalb, and 
Admiral D'Estaing and Count Rochaumbeau ; the Prussian 
General, Baron Steuben ; the Polish Generals, Pulaski and 
Kosciusko ; these are among the most illustrious foreigners 
who helped to gain American independence. 

189. Generals Albert Sidney Johnston, Robert E. Lee, 
Joseph E. Johnston, Gustave T. Beaureguard, " Stone- 
wall" Jackson, Jubal A. Early, Braxton Bragg, Wade 
Hampton, William J. Hardee, and John B. Hood. 

190. Generals Erwin McDowell, George B. McClellan, 
U. S. Grant, William T. Sherman, George H. Thomas, 
Philip H. Sheridan, Joseph Hooker, Wiufield S. Hancock, 
George G. Meade, Benjamin F. Butler. 

191. It was a friendly society formed by Washington 
and his ofl[icers at the close of the Revolution, and named 
in honor of the famous Roman general, Cincinnatus, who 
quitted his plow to serve his country, and after gaining 
victory, returned to his peaceful pursuits. 

192. The expedition under Clark, and which was con- 
ceived by him, marks one of the most important events in 
the history of our country. In the year 1778, Clark, then 
a resident of the territory belonging to Virginia, west of 
the Alleghauies (Kentucky), perceived that unless the 
English posts in the Northwest Territory were quickly 
seized, the entire country west of the Appalachian Mount- 
ains would be overrun by the British and their Indian 
allies. He at once set out for Virginia, and arriving 
at the Capital laid his plans before Patrick Henry, then 
governor of the State. They were approved by the gov- 
ernor, and Clark was instructed to raise seven companies 
of men west of the mountains, and to proceed at once 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 75 

against Kaskaskia, Vinceniies, and Detroit, This he did, 
and subdued the whole region except the Fort at Detroit, 
and received a pledge from the French traders and Indians 
to support the arms of the United States then at war with 
Great Britain. By this daring stroke, the United States 
probably gained her Independence — if not that, she at 
least gained such control over the Northwest Territory, as 
to Lave it ceded to her in the treaty with Great Britain in 
1783. 

193. At Paris, September 3, 1783. 

194. On the 30th of April, 1789, in the City of New 
York. 

195. Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson ; Secretary 
of Treasury, Alexander Hamilton ; Secretary of ^ar. 
General Henry Knox ; Attorney-General, Edmund Ran- 
dolph. 

196. It was a bill introduced into Congress in 1846 by 
David Wilmot of Pennsylvania, providing that "there 
shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in any 
territory which shall hereafter be acquired, or be annexed 
to the United States, otherwise than in the punishment of 
crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted." 
Its aim was to prohibit slavery in the territory about to be 
acquired from Mexico. 

197. "With malice towards none, with charity for all, 
with firmness in the right, let us strive on to finish the 
work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds." 

198. He was demanded to withdraw his troops from 
the aid of Maximilian whom he had helped to place upon 
the throne of the late established Empire of Mexico, as it 
was an infringement of the "Monroe Doctrine." (See 
answer 90.) 

199 The Sanitary Commission furnished money and 
supplies for the relief of the sick and wounded, and ren- 
dered untold service in adding home comforts to the hos- 



76 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

pitals, and- in establishing places of lodging for soldiers re- 
turning home on "sick-leave." 

The Christian Commission administered to the wants of 
the wounded and dying upon the field of battle, helped 
bury the dead, and looked after the spiritual welfare of 
soldiers on the march and in camp. 

These Commissions were sustained by both the Northern 
and the Southern people. 

200. The Confederate government in 1861 appointed 
John Slidell and James M. Mason embassadors to England 
and France, but while they were on board the British mail 
steamer Trejit on their voyage to Europe, they were seized by 
Captain Wilkes of the San Jacinto, in the service of the Fed- 
eral Navy, were carried to Boston and imprisoned. Great 
Britain at once threatened Avar for this insult to her flag, 
but that crisis was averted by a prompt apology for the 
rash act of Capt. Wilkes, by the Federal government ; 
Mason and Slidell were released, put aboard a vessel and 
sent to their destination. 

201. The Tariff, Slavery, Banking System, and Seces- 
sion. 

202. Constitution adopted by Congress, September 17, 
1787; St. Augustine founded, 1565; California admitted, 
September 9, 1850. 

203. The original "Mason and Dixon's Line," is the 
line separating Pennsylvania from Maryland, as estab- 
lished by the celebrated English astronomers and survey- 
ors, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, in 1767, after 
it had been in dispute between the Lords Baltimore and the 
Penu family for nearly eighty years. 

As Pennsylvania was a free State, and Maryland slave, 
a line corresponding nearly in latitude with the boundary 
between these two States, and marking in a general way the 
boundary between slave and free territory, became 
known in later time as "Mason and Dixon's Line," but this 
was sponged out of existence by the Civil War. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY 77 

204. It was the contest between the Confederate iron- 
clad, Merrvmac, and the Federal ironclad steam battery, 
Monitor, which took place in Hampton Roads, March 9, 
1862, and is widely known as the "Battle of the Iron 
Ships." Says Barnes: It was the first of the kind in the 
world. Close against each other, iron rasping on iron, they 
exchanged their heaviest volleys. Five times the Merrimac 
tried to run down the Monitor, but her huge beak only 
grated over the iron deck, while the Monitor glided out un- 
harmed. Despairing of doing anything with her doughty 
little antagonist, the Merrimac now steamed back to Nor- 
folk. 

The defeat of the Merrimac saved the Federal Union. 

205. Stephen A. Douglas, Democratic i)arty, north ; 
John C. Breckinridge, Democratic; i)arty, south ; Abraham 
Lincoln, Re})ublican i)arty ; John Bell, American or Union 
party. 

206. When Missouri applied for admission into the 
Union, 1819, a bill was introduced before Congress, making 
it a condition of that State's admission, that "neither 
slavery nor involuntary servitude shall exist therein." 
Under this restiction, Missouri failed of admission, but 
was finally admitted under the Compromise, which "pro- 
hibited slavery in all that portion of Louisiana Territory 
lying north of 36° 30', north latitude, except Missouri." 

207. California to be admitted as a free state ; Utah 
and New Mexico to be organized without any provision 
concerning slavery; Texas to be paid $10,000,000 to re- 
lease her claim on New Mexico ; the slave trade to be pro- 
hibited in the District of Columbia; a fugitive slave law 
to be enacted providing for the return to their owners of 
slaves escaping to a free state ; the formation of new states, 
not exceeding four in number, out of the Territory 
of Texas. 



79 UNITED STATKb HISTORY. 

208. He sailed from England in 1576 to the eastern 
coast of South America, then passing through the strait 
which bears his name, he coasted along the Pacific shore 
with the intention of reaching the north-west passage from 
the Pacific, when he expected to sail eastward around the 
continent, through, as he supposed, an open sea connected 
with the Atlantic. But he voyaged northward only to the 
coast of Oregon, which region he took j^ossession of and 
named New Albion, from whence he returned to England 
in 1579, by way of the Cape of Good Hope. It was on 
the discovery of Drake that England based her claim to the 
" Oregon country." 

209. Louis Philippe, then an exile. He afterwards 
became King of France. 

210. Peter Minuit, Wouter Van Twiller, William 
Kieft, and Peter Stuyvesant. 

211. It was a measure providing for the gradual reduc- 
tion of the tariff, the late Acts of Congress concerning 
which, had caused such great excitement iu the South, 
particularly in South Carolina. (See 143 . 

2 12. The fisheries on the coast of Nova Scotia and 
Newfoundland. 

213. We quote from Stephens: The stripes came 
from the six sections of the shield, which formed part of 
the original device of a seal jjroposed for the United States. 
These six sections, or quarterings of the escutcheon, were 
intended to designate the six European countries from 
which the United States had been chiefly peopled, to wit : 
England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany, and Hol- 
land. In drawing these six sections on the shield-figure, 
seven spaces of the original color were, of course, left, 
which gave to the whole the appearance of thirteen bars, 
or stripes. 

214. The thirteen stripes are emblematic of the thirteen 
original colonies, and they are arranged alternately red 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 79 

and white, because the outline of the banner, as a whole, 
is much firmer with red margins than with wliite ones. 
Since there are thirteen stripes, and those forming the 
margins are red, there would be, as a matter of course, six 
white ones. 

Some ingenious author has stated that the red stripes 
indicate the number of slave States^ and the white ones the 
free States of the original thirteen. > 

This is more noted on the part of the author for clever- 
ness of invention, than for truthfulness of statement. 
215. Virginia. 

George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, 
James Monroe, and John Tyler, who became President on 
the death of Harrison in 1741. Jackson, Taylor and Har- 
rison were born in Virginia. 

216. At the time of the surrender by Governor Stuyve- 
sant in 1664. 

217. Maryland under the control of the Catholics. 

218. Commodore Raphael Semmes of the Confederate 
Navy. 

219. The winter of 1834-35. Orange trees were killed 
by the severe cold in Florida. 

220. On the 16th and 17th of December, 1835. 
Over eighteen millions of dollars in property were de- 
stroyed, and hundreds of rich men were made penniless 
within a space of sixteen hours. 

221. In 1846 at Washington City. 

It was established by Act of Congress from funds be- 
queathed by James Smithson, an English chemist, who died 
at Genoa, Italy, in 1827. 

222. Martin Van Buren. 

223. On the night of November 13, 1833, occurred the 
most wonderful meteoric shower ever beheld. 

224. Those who belonged to the party headed by Henry 
Clay, and who were so intensely opposed to President Jack- 



80 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

son and his followers, about 1828 assumed the name Na- 
tional Repuhlicans. 

It was about this time that the name Democrats l)ecame 
firmly attached to the followers of Jefferson and Jackson. 

225. The first Postmaster-General was William T. 
Barry, of Kentucky, appointed by President Jackson as a 
member of his first cabinet. 

226. Thomas Ewing of Ohio, under President Taylor. 

227. James Monroe at his second election. He re- 
ceived the votes of every State, and all of the electoral 
votes except one in the college of New Hampshire, which 
was cast for John Q,. Adams. 

228. It occurred December 26,1811. 

229. Greneral Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts. 

230. When Jackson was on the retreat from his threat- 
ened attack on Washington in 1862, the Federal forces 
taking possession of the bridge over the Shenandoah, Jack- 
son and his staff became separated from his command. 
** Riding towards the bridge, and rising in his stirrups, he 
called sternly to the Federal officer commanding the artil- 
lery placed to sweep it : ' Who ordered you to post that 
gun there, sir ? Bring it over here !' The bewildered 
officer bowed, limbered up his piece, and prepared to move. 
Jackson and his staff seized the lucky moment and dashed 
across the bridge before the gun could be brought to bear 
upon them." 

231. That the terms of surrender were drawn up and 
signed under the boughs of an apple-tree at Apj)omattax. 

General Grant in his autobi()gra|:)hy says : Wars pro- 
duce many stories of fiction, some of which are told until 
they are believed. The war of the rebellion was fruitful 
in the same way. The story of the apple-tree is one of 
those fictions with a slight foundation of facts. As I have 
said, there was an apple orchard on the side of the hill 
occupied by the Confederate forces. Running diagonally 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 81 

up the hill was a wagon road which at one point ran very 
near one of the trees, so that the wheels on that side had 
cut off the roots of the tree, which made a little embank- 
ment. Gen. Babcock reported to me that when he first 
met Gen. Lee, he was sitting upon this embankment with 
his feet in the road, and leaning against the tree. It was 
then that Lee was conducted into the house where I first 
met him. (See Ans. 176.) 

232. In May 1856, Charles Sumner, Senator from 
Massachusetts, in a speech before the Senate made allusion 
to Senator A. P. Butler frcmi South Carolina, in language 
which was deemed highly offensive by the gentleman last 
named and his friends. At an adjournment of the Senate 
on the 22d of the month, Preston Brooks, a member of 
the House from South Carolina, and a nephew of Senator 
Butler, approached Senator Sumner who was writing in 
his seat, in the Senate Chamber, and after some words 
proceeded to chastise him by striking him over the head 
and shoulders with a solid gutta percha cane. Brooks 
struck about a dozen blows, which from his great physical 
powers, so stunned Senator Sumner as to render his recov- 
ery doubtful for several months. However, after a period 
of three years, during which time he twice visited Europe 
to receive medical treatment. Senator Sumner was able to 
resume his seat in the Senate. Perhaps no single act did 
so much to rouse hostility between the North and the South, 
or to hasten the rebellion as Brooks's assault on Senator 
Sumner. 

233. It is stated by respectable authority that the term 
"Old Dominion " originated from the fact that Virginia 
was the first permanent colony planted in North America 
by the English. But Stephens, who seems to have given 
this question careful investigation, states that it is from the 
adherence of the Virginia colonists to the cause of 
Charles II. While that monarch was in exile, the Virgin- 



82 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

ians invited him to come to the colony as their rightful 
sovereign. Thus, from the adherence of Virginia to the old 
government, and not to that of Cromwell, it was called 
the "Old Dominion." 

234. It was an Act passed by Congress, March 3, 1863, 
authorizing the President to recruit the army by draft, if 
necessary. This was held by many to be a violation of the 
Constitution, "since," said they, "the States, and not the 
Federal government, have the power to raise troops to 
carry on the war." This Act of Congress was the cause of 
much trouble in the North, especially in New York City, 
where a serious riot occurred July 18, 1863, which 
lasted for three days, and during which time more than 400 
persons were killed, and over $2,000,000 worth of 
property was destroyed. 

235. George Washington, Wiufield Scott, Ulysses S. 
Grant. Also, William T. Sherman and P. H. Sheridan 
have been made Lieutenant-Generals. 

236. April 10, 1816. It was located at Philadelphia, 
and was called the ' ' Bank of the United States." 

237. June 18, 1812. 

238. It is a proud monument of the growth of the 
manufacturing interests of the State of Ohio, and is the 
largest and finest furnace in the United States. 

239. He was a secret agent employed by the British 
government in 1812, to produce a disaffection in the New 
England States, that might result in their political connec- 
tion with Great Britain. 

240. Powhattan, King Philip, Logan, Chief of the 
Mingoes, Tecumseh, Osceola, and Pontiac. 

241. Powhattan with the first English settlement in 
Virginia; King Philip with what is known as "King 
Philip's War;" Logan with "Lord Dunmore's War;" 
Tecumseh M'ith the Battle of The Thames ; Osceola with 
the Florida Wars ; Pontiac with the Northwest Indian 
Confederation, 1763. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 83 

242. Winfield Scott. 

243. Charles Carroll "of Carrolltou," boru at Au- 
napolis, Md. 1737, died 1832. 

244. Passed iu 1804; went iuto effect Jan. 1, 1808. 

245. November 7, 1811. It resulted in a victory for 
the American forces over the Pi'ophet and his Indian 
allies. 

246. It was a resolution passed by the Senate of the 
United States, through the efforts of Thomas H. Benton 
of Missouri, January 16, 1837, expunging from the Senate 
Journal, the resolution of censure against President Jack- 
son, passed by that body March 28, 1834. The resolution 
expunged reads, '' Resolved that the President in the late 
Executive proceedings in relation to the public revenue, 
has assumed upon himself authority and power not con- 
ferred by the Constitution and laws, but in derogation of 
both." 

This was expunged by drawing heavy black lines around 
it, and writing across its face, '' Expunged by order of the 
Senate this sixteenth day of January in the year of our 
Lord, 1837." 

247. It was first used by General Lewis Cass of Mich- 
igan, in a speech before the Senate, December 15, 1845, 
on the subject of the northwest boundary between the 
United States and Great Britain. 

248. A call for 75,000 volunteers for three months, to^ 
put down the rebellion. 

249. Gen. Kirby Smith in Texas, May 26, 1865. 

250. David Glascoe Farragut, July 1866. 

251. Those topics which discuss the causes and results 
of great events. 

252. Five Forks is situated 12 miles southwest from 
Petersburg, Va. , at which place occuri-ed the memorable 
battle of Five Forks, April 1, 1865. 



84 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

253. Alexander Hamiltou, Albert Gallatin, Salmon 
P. Chase, and John Sherman. To these may be added 
William H. Crawford. 

254. As the place of confinement of Jefferson Davis 
while held a prisoner on a charge of treason against the 
United States government. 

255. General Sedgwick was killed at the battle of 
Spottsylvania, May 9, 1864. He was superintending the 
placing of a battery, when seeing a soldier dodging a ball 
from the enemy, he rebuked him, saying, "Pooh! they 
can't hit an elephant at this distance." At that moment 
he was himself struck by a ball, and killed. 

256. Andrew Jackson, and John Quincy Adams, each 
born in the year 1767. They opposed each other for the 
Presidency in 1824, when Adams was successful, and 
again in 1828 when Jackson was elected. 

257. His last words were — "This is the last of earth; 
I am content." 

258. The battle of Camden, Aug. 16, 1780. 

259. "The Charter Oak," " Penn's Elm," "Eliot's 
Pine," " The Twin Sisters," and "The Washington Elm" 
at Cainbridge, Mass. 

260. Gen. Arnold at the second battle of Saratoga, 
September, 1777. 

261. Clay, Webster, and Calhoun were called the 
" Great Trio" for the first time, about 1832. They were 
afterwards known as the " Great Senatorial Trio." 

262. The retreat of Braddock's army, Washington's 
retreat through New York and New Jersey, Green's 
retreat through the Carolinas, the Bull Run retreat, and 
Lee's retreat from Gettysburg. 

263. By the treaty of Paris, September 3, 1783. 

As a fact of history it may be well to state here that at 
the preliminary meeting of the English and American 
commissioners, held at Versailles near Paris, in November, 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 85 

1782, it was proposed by Mr. Oswald the British commis- 
sioner, to make the Ohio River tlie western boundary, and 
but for the foresight and indomitable perseverance of John 
Adams, one of the American commissioners, this would 
have been agreed to. 

264. John Paul Jones, in the battle between the Bon 
Homme Richard and. the Serapis, Sept. 23, 1779. 

265. The battle of Bunker Hill. 

266. The battle of King's Mountain, Oct. 7, 1780. 

267. John Tyler, Martin Van Buren, Franklin Pierce, 
and James Buchanuan. 

268. Benjamin Franklin. He was the publisher of 
" Poor Richard's Almanac." 

269. Two : the first in the summer of 1862, and the 
second in the summer of 1863. The battle of Gettysburg 
ended Lee's attempt to invade the North. 

270. Lee's invasion of the North in 1862 was checked 
by the defeat of his army at Antietam, Sept. 17th. His 
invasion of 1863 was stopped by the result at Gettysburg, 
July 1-3, 1863. 

271. Aaron Burr, Vice-President during Jefferson's 
first administration, was arrested and tried for treason, in 
1807. 

272. Abraham Lincoln. It was feared that he would 
be assassinated by mobs in Washington, so great was the 
partisan spirit of the times. 

273. General Antonia Lopez de Santa Anna. This 
was at the battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18, 1846, where 
Santa Anna escaped on a mule, leaving his wooden leg be- 
hind, so great was his haste to get away from the approach- 
ing Americans. 

274. The "Hunkers "was a name applied to that 
faction of the Democratic party in the State of New York, 
which was in favor of the annexation of Texas, as slave 
territory. The chief spirit of this faction was William L. 
Marcv. 



86 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

275. The "Barnburners" or Van Buren Democrats, 
was that faction of the Democratic party in the State of 
New York, which opposed the further extension of the 
slave power. The " Barnburners, " the anti-slavery Whigs, 
and the old Abolitionists formed the Free-soil party in 
1848. 

276. Old Faneuil Hall in Boston, Massachusetts. 

277. Stony Point on the Hudson, captured by "Mad 
Anthony" Wayne, July 15, 1779. 

278. Gen. Israel Putnam. This occurred at Horse- 
neck in 1779, while "Old Put," as he was familiarly called, 
had in charge the American forces in Connecticut. The 
British General Tryon with 1,500 men attacked one of the 
American outposts guarded by 150 soldiers and two can- 
non. After the exchange of a few shots, Putnam, per- 
ceiving the British dragoons about to make a charge, 
ordered his men to retreat to a swamp. Tarrying too long 
himself, and being hotly pursued by the enemy, he made 
his escape by plunging down a declivity where his pursuers 
dared not follow, and so escaped to his men, without a 
mark, save a bullet hole in his hat. 

279. Washington, Jackson, Fillmore, Lincoln, John- 
son, Grant, Garfield, and Cleveland. 

280. The British had twice the force of the Americans. 
The British loss in killed and wounded was over 2,000, the 
Americans had but seven killed and six imunded. The British 
army was composed, of veteran troops who had seen 
service in the war with Napoleon, the American 
force was composed of militia and backwoodsmen. The 
first three officers in command of the British forces Avere 
killed, namely: Generals Pakenham, Gibbs, and Keane. 
The battle was fought after terms of peace had been agreed 
upon between the two governments. 

281. The battle of Antietam, September, 17, 1862. 

282. Colonel Rail, the Hessian commandant at Tren- 
ton in 1776. 



UNITED STATES HISTURV. 87 

283. At Fort Du Quesne, in 1755, where an Indian 
singled out Washington as a special mark. Every shot 
was fired with deliberate aim, four of the balls piercing the 
clothes of the young Colonel. The old chief afterwards 
made a visit to Virginia ' ' to see the man that could not be 
killed." 

284. The Treaty of Paris, Sept. 13, 1783; Treaty with 
Spain, 1795; Treaty with Algiers, 1795; Treaty with 
Napoleon I., 1803 ; Second Algieriue Treaty, 1805 ; Treaty 
of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814; Spanish Treaty, 1819; Treaty 
with Japan, 1845; Webster- Ashburton Treaty, June 12, 
1846; Treaty of Gaudalupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2 1848; The 
Washington Reci])rocity Treaty, June 7, 1854; The Treaty 
of Washington, May 8, 1871 ; Second Treaty with China, 
1881. 

285. ''X protective tariff i^ a tkity imposed on imported 
goods for the purpose of encouraging their manufacture at 
home." 

286. "Beware your northern laurels do not turn to 
southern willows." 

287. They are the words of General Reed of Pennsyl- 
vania, when offered a bribe to join the arms of Great 
Britain against his C(juntry. This was while Lord Howe 
was in Philadelphia. 

288. George B. McClellan, Ambrose E. Burnsitle, 
Joseph Hooker, and George G. Meade. 

289. (a) Tippecanoe, Nov. 7, 1811; (b) Gettysburg, 
July 1-3, 1863; (c) Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775; (d) 
Saratoga, Sept. 19 to Oct. 7, 1777; (e) Trenton, Dec. 
25, 1776 ; (f ) Shiloh, April 6-7, 1862. 

290. At Detroit, Michigan, August 16, 18J2, General 
William Hull surrendered his entire army and all the 
Territory of Michigan to General Brock, and the Indian 
Chief, Tecumseh, without firing a single shot. 

291. In the Black Hawk War in 1832- 



88 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

The Seminole War of 1835, is given in answer to this 
question by some compilers of U. S. history, but it is 
erroneous, as is shown by the facts that Mr. Davis re- 
signed his commission in 1835, and Mr. Lincoln served in 
the Black Hawk War only. 

292. At the battle of Germantown, Pennsylvania, 
Oct. 4, 1777. At Fredricksburg, Virginia, Dec. 13, 1862. 

293. It was a temperance reformatory movement started 
in the winter of 1877, by Francis Murphy, a reclaimed ine- 
briate. 

294. This was said of General Andrew Jackson after 
his heroic defenseof New Orleans in 1815. 

It ^vill be remembered that the British army was com- 
posed largely of troops who had fought against Napo- 
leon, and that their commanding General, Pakenham, was 
a brother-in-law of the Duke of Wellington, the hero of 
Waterloo. 

295. Each tribe has its Chief, or governor, and 
its Council, by whom all laws for the tribe are 
enacted. These councils elect representatives to the Gen- 
eral Council which meets once a year. The Indians are 
not amenable to the United States, but make their own 
laws and execute them. (See Geography, 297.) 

296. The United States hold in trust an interest bear- 
ing fund of $3,000, 000, which was provided for the In- 
dians upon their removal from the Southern States to the 
Territory in Jackson's administration. The interest upon 
this fund is paid to them annually, and is distributed as 
follows ; 50 per cent, to be used for the Indian Govern- 
ment ; 35 per cent, for school purposes; and 15 per cent, 
for charitable purposes. (See Geography, 297.) 

297. (a) Inventor of the Tack Machine ; (b) Inventor 
of the Modern Cast Iro7i Plow; (c) Inventor of the R. R. 
Passenger Car; (d) Inventor of the Harvesting Machine; 
(e) Inventor of the Bell Telephone, 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 89 

298. This was a derisive term applied to the " bolting 
Republicans" who, under the leadership of George William 
Curtis and Carl Shurz, refused to support James G. Blaine 
for the Presidency in 1884, but labored for the success of 
Grover Cleveland, the Democratic candidate. 

299. The corner-stone was laid July 4, 1848, the cap 
stone was put in position Dec. 6, 1884, and the dedication 
ceremonies were held Feb. 21, 1885. The height of the 
monument is 555 feet, and the entire cost, $1,187,710. 
The weight of the shaft is 82,000 tons. 

300. The statue of " Liberty Enlightening the World " 
is the largest work of its kind that has ever been executed. 
This noble monument to "Liberty," stands on Bedloe's 
Island, in the harbor of New York, and the work com- 
plete measures 309 feet in height from the ground. The 
statue is a gift of the French people to the people of the 
United States in commemoration of the friendship between 
the two Republics, which began during the struggle for 
American Independence. The idea of such a gift origin- 
ated with that noble Frenchman, M. Laboulaye; but the 
conception of "Liberty" as she stands, and the execution 
of the design, is due to the fertile genius of M. Bartholdi, 
the great French sculptor. The statue was begun in 
France in 1875, and the work carried to completion by 
funds amounting to 1,000,000 francs, donated chiefly by 
the working people of that country. The pedestal upon 
which the statue stands was built with funds subscribed 
by the working people of the United States. The statue 
arrived in the harbor of New York on board the beautiful 
French Steamer, here, on June 19, 1885, at which time 
was held a great water procession, and public demonstra- 
tion in honor of the event. 

301. The State of California. (1885.) 

302. A term used to designate the routes commonly 
followed by fugitive slaves across free territory to Canada. 



90 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

These routes lay through localities in the free States, the 
peojjle along which secreted the fugitives from their pur- 
suers, and lent them aid in their efforts to reach Canada. 

303. Andersonville, near Macon, Georgia. 
Libby, at Richmond, Virginia. 

304. The Joliet Prison near Chicago, Illinois. 

The prison on Johnson's Island in Lake Erie. 

Fortress Monroe is celebrated as the place of confine- 
ment of Jefferson Davis, and other prominent Confed- 
erates, at the close of the Civil War. 

305. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John 
Jay. 

306. Colonial, Continental, and National Congresses. 

307. Miles Standish, John Alden, Priscilla Mullen, and 
William Brewster, "the excellent Elder of Plymouth." 

308. "The Courtship of Miles Standish," by H. W. 
Longfellow. 

309. Judges Bradley, Strong, Miller, Clifford, and 
Field. Senators Edmunds, Frelinghuysen, Morton, Bay- 
ard, and Thurman. Represenatives, Garfield, Hoar, Ab- 
bott, Huntou, and Payne. 

310. In 1846, by George Bancroft, the historian, while 
serving as Secretary of the Navy in President Polk's cabi- 
net. 

3lL Arthur took the oath of office in New York City, 
on the night of September 19, 1881, It was administered 
by Hon. J. R. Brady, Justice of the Supreme Court of 
New York. 

312. At present (1885) there are eleven Atlantic 
cables, seven of which are duplexed, that is, they are 
cajjable of receiving and sending at the same time over 
one wire. 

313. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman. 

314. The Greely expedition sailed July 7, 1881, and its 
survivors were brought back July 11, 1884. Lieut. Lock- 



I 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 91 

wood reached 83 degrees and 24 minutes north latitude, 
or within 458 miles of" the pole. 

315. July 4, 1776. 

316. General Lafayette while in the United States in 
1824-5. 

317. September 5, 1774, at Philadelphia, Pa. 

318. June 7, 1776, in Congress at Philadelphia, by 
Richard Henry Lee of Virginia. 

319. William L. Marcy of New York. 

320. President Jackson in 1829. 

321. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. 

322. Martin Koszta was engaged with Kossuth in the 
Hungarian rebellion, and fled with him to the United 
States in 1852, where he formally declared his intention to 
become a citizen. Having occasion to visit Europe in 
President Pierce's administration, he was seized while on 
Turkish soil, by the officers of an Austrian frigate, and 
put in chains. Commander Ingraham of the United 
States sloop of war, St. Louis, being in the harbor, ordered 
Koszta's release, finall) declaring that if his demands were 
not acceded to before a certain time, he would open fire 
on the Austrian vessel. An agreement was then made to 
put Koszta in charge of the French government until his 
nationality could be determined. Then followed an 
elaborate correspondence between the Austrian minister 
at Washington, and William L. Marcy, the American 
Secretary of State, which resulted in Koszta's release. 
Secretary Marcy stated in substance that Koszta had de- 
clared his intention to become a citizen of the United 
States, and he, as all others, should receive the protection 
of the American flag at any cost. Commodore Ingraham 
was voted the thanks of Congress, and a sword. 

323. "I resign my soul to God, and my daughter to 
my country." 



QUESTIONS 

ON 



1. What forces hold the earth in its orbit? 

2. Why is the orbit of the earth an ellipse ? 

3. What is " standard time " ? 

4. Name the new divisions of time as arranged for the 
United States, and bound each by the proper meridians. 

5. What things determine the climate of a country ? 

6. How many times a year is it noon at the north pole ? 

7. Do degrees of latitude ever vary ? 

8. What is a degree of longitude ? 

1). Define sensi])le, rational, and celestial horizon. 

10. How is dew formed ? 

11. Bound Switzerland, and give its form of gavern- 
ment. 

12. What are map projections ? 

13. Name those in most common use. 

14. Is there any difference between a meridian, and a 
)ueridian circle ? 

15. What is the mean annual temperature of a place? 

16. Where are degrees of longitude greatest? 

17. What is the zodiac? 

18. What is the smallest Republic in the world ? 

19. How great is the specific gravity of the earth? 

20. Has the solar system a progressive motion ? 

21. State the importance of the atmosphere in the 
economy of the globe. 



94 GEOGRAPHY. 

22. How many moons has Saturn ? 

23. Define the great circle of illumination. 

24. What are clouds, and how formed ? 

25. Which is the most elevated lake ? 

26. What determines the location of the tropics and 
polar circles ? 

27. What city in Europe has the same latitude as Col- 
umbus in Ohio ? 

28. What is the dip of the horizon ? 
. 29. What is the zenith ? 

30. What is the nadir ? 

31. Give the latitude and longitude of Greenwich, and 
tell for what it is noted. 

32. How many rotations does the earth make in one 
revolution ? 

33. What is meant by speaking of the inhabitants of a 
region as Ascii and Amphiscii ? 

34. With regard to the shadows they cast what are the 
inhabitants of the temperate zones called ? 

35. Those of the frigid zones ? 

36. What are planets, and why so named ? 

37. Define planetoids, and tell in what region of space 
they are found. 

38. Why is one hour of time said to be equal to 15 de- 
grees of longitude ? 

39. Bound the State last admitted into the Union, and 
name its Capital. 

40. What is the ecliptic? Why so called? 

41. What is the length of the earth's orbit? 

42. How great is the average velocity of the earth in 
one hour? 

43. Explain the origin of coral islands. 

44. Locate the principal coal, iron, and gold regions 
of the United States. 

45. Give Laplace's "nebular hypothesis." 



GEOGRAPHY. 95 

46. What is the cause of lightning and thunder? 

47. State three conditions on which the temperature 
of a place depends. 

48. Why is the Pacific shore of Mexico rainless ? 

49. Account for the fact that during certain periods 
the sun shines on the north side of houses situated north 
of the tropic of cancer. 

50. Name the movements of ocean waters, and tell 
cause of each motion. 

51. Define sidereal, tropical, anomalistical, and civil 
year. 

52. What is generally believed to be the cause of earth- 
quakes ? 

53. Define aphelion and perihelion. 

54. Name, and bound by parallels, the mathematical 
zones. 

55. What are isothermal lines ? Isogeotherms ? 

56. Name, and ])ound by the proper isotherms, the 
physical zones. 

57. What is the vernal equinox ? 

58. How many equinoxes in a year, and at what times 
do they occur ? 

59. Why do not the mathematical and physical zones 
coincide ? 

60. Locate the Casiquiare River, and state its noted 
peculiarity. 

61. Where are the great cyclone regions? 

62. Describe the I'otary and the progressive motions of 
cyclones. 

63. Locate the zone of calms, and explain why it is so. 

64. How is hail formed ? 

65. How would the climate and vegetation of South 
America be changed, were the Andes on the Atlantic 
coast? 

66. Which is the most celebrated volcano ? Why ? 



96 GEOGRAPHY. 

67. What volcano is called the * ' light-house of the 
Mediterranean " ? 

68. Which is the most useful of all minerals ? 

69. Which is the most useful of all metals ? 

70. Which is the most valuable of all metals ? 

71. Where is zinc obtained? 

72. What is pig-iron ? What is charcoal ? 

73. How is coke obtained ? 

74. Where are the deepest coal mines ? 

75. What peculiarities belong to the Nile River? 

76. What is sago ? Where obtained, and why valu- 
able? 

77. What is cannel-coal, and why so called ? 

78. Describe two water routes from New York to 
Bombay. 

79. Where is coffee grown ? Whence the name ? 

80. Name five States of the United States that are 
nearly equal to each other in area. 

81. Name and locate three celebrated natural places 
of interest in the United States. 

82. What points on the earth's surface have no lati- 
tude? 

83. Where must a place be situated to have no longi- 
tude ? 

84. Bound the "Centennial State." Why so called? 

85. What is the eflTect of the extreme inequality of the 
mountain slopes of South America ? 

86. Locate the centre of the land hemisphere. 

87. Locate the centre of the water hemisphere. 

88. What would be the effect of connecting the Med- 
iterranean Sea and the Sahara Desert ? 

89. Explain why there are thirteen moons in a year. 

90. Why is not dew deposited on cloudy nights ? 

91. How wide is the mouth of the Amazon River? 

92. Name the principal narcotics used in different 
parts of the world. 



GEOGRAPHY. 97 

93. Name and locate five isthmuses. 

94. What large cities of the United States are situated 
on islands? 

95. Bound the State of the United States having the 
largest population. 

96. Why are thunder storms more frequent in hot than 
in cold weather ? 

97. What is the aurora 6orm/i5, or "northern light"? 

98. Why is the sky blue ? 

99. What is the phosphorescence of the Mediterranean 
Sea? 

100. What is a lunar rain-bow? 

101. In what direction does the tide wave move around 
the earth? Why? 

102. If the earth's axis were inclined but 15 degrees 
from a perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, what would 
be the latitude of the tropics and polar circles ? What 
would be the width of each zone? 

103. If the earth's axis were inclined 30 degrees from a 
perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, what would be the 
width of each zone ? 

104. What are three causes of the varying length of 
the days and nights in the same latitude? 

105. Where are the days always equal ? Why ? 

106. When are they equal everywhere ? Why ? 

107. Name five islands of the Mediterranean Sea, and 
tell to what countries they belong. 

108. Go from Milwaukee to Canton via of Alexandria. 

109. Locate five inland lakes or seas which have no 
outlets. 

110. State whether the waters of these lakes or seas 
are fresh or salt. Why? 

111. How does the temperature of the ocean compare 
with that of the land ? 

112. Describe an eclipse of the sun. Of the moon. 



98 GEOGRAPHY. 

113. What is the cause of the dense fogs off the coast 
of Newfouudland ? 

114. What are the several geographical elements of 
the world? 

115. In what respect do oceanic islands differ from 
continental? 

116. How many States originally formed the United 
States? Name them, 

117. How many States are there at present? 

118. In what respects do the governments of England, 
Russia, and France differ? 

119. Where and what is the Giant's Causeway? 

120. Define monsoons. 

121. Explain antipodes. 

122. Where are the Thousand Isles? 

123. Name and bound three Republics in Europe. 

124. What is a mediterranean sea? 

125. Name and locate three mediterranean seas. 

126. Describe the peculiarities of the animals and 
plants of Australia. 

127. Define apogee and perigee. 

128. Why is the sun sometimes said to be "fast" or 
*'slow"? 

129. What is the international date line? 

130. Where is the greatest amount of rainfall annu- 
ally? 

131. What causes twilight ? 

132. Why is the duration of twilight not the same aU 
the year ? 

133. Are there any countries where twilight does not 
occur ? 

134. Name seven proofs of the earth's rotundity ? 

135. At what times of the year does the sun rise due 
east, and set due west? Why? 

136. Why is it colder on the top of a mountain than at 
the level of the sea in the same latitude ? 



GEOGRAPHY. 99 

137. What Empire of Asia is composed entirely of 
islands ? 

138. If you were standing at the North Pole to-day, in 
what direction would your shadow fall? 

139. When it is 2 o'clock p. M. at Cleveland, Ohio, 
what is the time at St. Augustine, Florida, their difference 
of latitude being 12 degrees? 

140. State the different periods of the earth's forma- 
tion in the order of their occurrence. 

141. Explain the distinctive features of each of the 
geological ages. 

142. Define snow-line. 

143. Name two States each of which is bounded by 
eight States. 

144. Where are the most extensive tin mines? 

145. What three large islands are situated partly in 
north, and partly in south latitude ? 

146. What causes the change of seasons ? 

147. Which is the warmer, the land or water hemis- 
phere ? Why ? 

148. Where is West Point, and for what is it noted ? 

149. At what time of the year is the earth farthest 
from the sun ? Give reason for your answer. 

150. What is the mean distance of the earth from the 
sun? 

151. What would be the effect if the Dead and Med- 
iterranean Seas were connected with a channel ? 

152. Wherein does geography include the science 
of mathemathics ? Of astronomy ? Of geology ? Of 
zoology ? 

153. Where is Harper's Ferry, and for what is it noted ? 

154. Locate three sargasso seas. How are they 
formed ? 

155. State the length and termini of the Atlantic Cable. 

156. Which way does the water flow through Behring 
Strait? 



100 GEOGRAPHY. 

157. What large lake in Central Africa has no outlet? 

158. Where is the Golden Horn? Why so called? 

159. What important military posts has Great Britain 
in and upon the Mediterranean ? 

160. What were the original names of Pittsburgh and 
New York? 

161. Give proofs that the earth is an oblate spheroid. 

162. Where are volcanos most numerous ? Why? 

163. Which ocean receives the most useful rivers ? 

164. To what political division does the Isthmus of 
Panama belong? 

165. What rights are granted a territory of the U. S. 
on being admitted into the Union ? 

166. Name ten seas that touch Europe. 

167. What is the " maritime zone" of a country ? 

168. State the difference between a lough and loch, a 
naze and cape. 

169. Of what is Congress of the United States com- 
posed ? 

170. How many islands constitute the Japan Empire? 

171. Over what portions of the earth's surface do the 
vertical rays of the sun fall ? 

172. Where is the highest elevation of land ? Where 
is the lowest depression ? How great is each ? 

173. Of what importance is Kiakhta ? 

174. Where is Nantucket Island ? 

175. Under the control of what government is the 
Suez Canal ? 

176. Where is the Golden Gate? Why so named? 

177. State five causes which prevent the isothermal 
lines from being parallel. 

178. Name a large body of water in which no living 
animal exists. 

179. Name the largest body of fresh water on the globe. 

180. How are glaciers formed ? 



GEOGRAl'UY. lOJ 

181. Where is the largest bell in the world ? 

182. State the difference between Llanos and Selvas. 

183. Explain why degrees of latitude increase in value 
from the equator to the poles. 

184 Which is the larger, the Caspian Sea or Lake 
Superior ? 

185. Name three well known geyser regions. 

186. Explain the periodical activity of geysers. < 

187. Name and give height of the culminating point 
of each grand division. 

188. What is the boundary between the western and 
eastern hemispheres ? 

189. Describe the Gulf Stream, and tell its effect upon 
the climate of Great Britain. 

190. What causes would you give for the elevations 
and depressions on the earth's surface? 

191. Why is it colder at the Antarctic Circle than at the 
Arctic ? 

192. Wliere is the Yellowstone National Park and for 
what celebrated ? 

193. What State of the United States has an eastern 
and a western river boundary V 

194. To what is attributed the origin of ocean currents? 

195. What State is the geographical center of the 
United States? 

196. Name and give capital of a country in Europe 
which has no sea coast 

197. What country has the most extensive system of 
canals ? 

198. What and where is the most magnificent church 
in the world ? 

199. How tnany active volcanoes in the world ? 

200. What plant, although yielding no food, drink, 
clothing, medicine, shelter, or ornament, is used very ex- 
tensively in nearly every country in the world? 



102 GEOGRAPHY, 

201. What trees are valuable for their sap? State 
where each kind is found. 

202. State how and where each of the following is 
produced : Camphor, opium, hasheesh, and castor oil. 

203. Where was the first suspension bridge built ? 

204. Where is the largest suspension bridge in the 
world ? 

205. What are deciduous, endogenous, and indigenous 
trees ? 

206. Name two cities in Europe that liave canals 
instead of streets. 

207. Where is the Wei land Canal ? 

208. What are artesian wells ? Whence the name ? 

209. Of what benefit is the Nile River to Egypt ? 

210. What is silt? What is a raft, and what river is 
noted for its rafts ? 

211. What is a dry-dock, and where is the finest onein 
the United States? 

212. How great is the rotary velocity of the earth at 
the equator? 

213. Mention some of the effects of the rotation of the 
earth. 

214. What is the longest river, and how long is it 

215. What is the highest mountain ? How high? 

216. What is the greatest Empire on the globe ? 

217. Name the largest island, and the largest city in 
the world. 

218. Define cosmography, and topography. 

219. Locate the Pindus Mountains. 

220. What noticeable features of the Amazon River can 
you name ? 

221. What is the exact direction of Iceland from the 
North Pole? 

222. In what month and at what hour would shadows 
fall north at the Antarctic Circle ? 



GEOGRAPHY. 103 

228. What portion of the land area of the world do 
the islands occupy ? 

224. Where are the principal anthracite and bitumin- 
ous coal-fields of tlic United States ? 

225. How have the soils of the earth been formed? 

226. What does the ecliptic show, and where is the 
surfiice of the hemisphere cut by the ecliptic ? 

227. Where and what are Wight, Scilly, and Anglesea? 

228. Wliat theory is advanced as a possible cause of 
earthquakes ? 

229. On what parallel is the sun vertical at the winter 
solstice ? 

230. What does the term solstice mean? 

231. How does the presence of icebergs in the South 
Atlantic prove the existence of land around the South 
Pole ? 

232. What are isotheral lines ? 

233. Where are the Barbadoes, and to what country 
do they belong? 

234. State five causes producing changes upon the 
surface of the earth. 

235. Name and locate the most populous capital in the 
United States. 

236. To what three important families of men do the 
inhabitants of the Austrian Emj)ire belong? 

237. What is the height of the snow-line at the Equa- 
tor? 

238. What causes the difference in the height of tides? 

239. Where do the tides rise the highest? How high ? 

240. What determines the length of day ? 

241. Classify springs according to the minerals found 
in their waters. 

242. What countries lie around the center of the land 
hemisphere ? 

243. Mention the limits of the fall of snow in the 
northern hemisphere. 



104 GEOGRAPHY. 

244. Explain the mutual dependence of plants and an- 
imals. 

245. Define meteorology. 

246. Name and locate the most noted waterfalls in the 
world. 

247. Explain why the Avater in the Caspian Sea is salt, 
while that in the Black Sea is fresh. 

248. Name five causes that may vary the rainfall of a 
place. 

249. What are the three functions of political govern- 
ment ? 

250. Locate the Magnetic Poles of the earth. 

251. Why is the earth flattened at the poles? 

252. What does the name of the largest sea in the 
world signify ? How long is it? 

253. Locate and describe Palestine. 

254. Name five of the present rulers of Europe. 

255. Locate the Telegraphic Plateau. 

256. Where is the Isle of Man ? 

257. Which way does the current flow through the 
Strait of Gibraltar ? 

258. Describe Plymouth Rock. 

259. Where is the greatest amount of rainfall annually 
in the United States ? 

260. Name a lake in New York, whose waters find 
their way into the Gulf of Mexico. 

~ 261. Where are noted catacombs? 

262. Where is Cleopatra's Needle ? 

263. What countries are known as the " Emerald Isle," 
"Albion," "Columbia"? 

264. How did water originate on the earth ? 

265. What State has the greatest number of miles of 
railroad according to its area ? 

266. How are water spouts formed ? 

267. In the Afghanistan trouble between England and 



GEOGRAPHY. 105 

Russia, what is the meaning of "England recognized as 
Afghanistan's Suzerian " ? 

268. For what is Pisa famous ? 

269. In what country were raih'oads first introduced? 

270. Should we say the axis of the earth is inclined 
23^, or 66^ degrees ? 

271. What is the hottest city in the world? The 
coldest ? 

272. What causes the saltness of the Ocean ? 

273. What is the noticeable peculiarity of the surface 
of Holland ? 

274. Where is Lake Chautauqua and for what noted ? 

275. What eifect have Lakes Huron and Michigan on 
the climate of the lower peninsula of Michigan ? How is 
this shown ? 

276. Name the States formed from the Northwest 
Territory in the order of their admission. 

277. Of what advantage to a country is a deeply in- 
dented coast? 

278. How are salt lakes formed ? Name the two 
largest. 

279. What city is known as the "Hub " ? 

280. To what race of men do the highest social classes 
belong ? 

281. What two forms have mountains? 

282. Where are the Submarine Forests ? , 

283. How and where is cork obtained ? 

284 What is meant by the precession of the equinoxes ? 

285. What is the flora of a country? The fauna? 

286. Whence are pearls obtained ? 

287. How much later do the tides occur each day? 

288. What is meant by the descending, or the ascend- 
ing node of a planet ? 

289. Compare the area of the Sahara Desert with that 
of the Mediterranean Sea, 



log GEOGRAPHY. 

290. Why have the isothermal line.s greater variation 
in the northern hemisphere, than in the southern ? 

291. Where is the longest tunnel in the United States? 

292. Bound the Pacific Ocean. 

293. Name and describe the different forms of clouds. 

294. What are steppes ? 

295. Define zoology, ornithology, ichthyology, and 
ethnology. 

296. What is the title of the monarch of Russia ? Of 
Egypt ? Of Turkey ? 

297. How is Indian Territory governed ? 

298. What bodies of water are connected by the Suez 
Canal ? 

299. Locate Valencia, and tell for what it is noted. 

300. If the earth's axis were perpendicular to the plane 
of its orbit, what imaginary lines would be dispensed with ? 
Why? 

301. Why are north winds generally cold and dry? 

302. What are the dimensions of clouds? 

303. What are dry fogs ? 

304. Why is dew formed most plentifully after mid- 
night ? 

305. What produces the various shapes of clouds ? 

306. Why is little dew formed under thick foliage ? 

307. How long does the sun shine without setting at 
Nova Zembla, latitude 75 degrees north, and how long is 
it invisible ? 

308. Define antipodes, perioeci, and antioeci. 

309. In what sign of the zodiac is the sun on June 21st? 

310. Name the two poles of the horizon. 

311. What State of the United States is very nearly the 
size of the Yellowstone National Park ? 

312. Where is the Tappan Sea, and what noted place 
is on its border ? 

313. Where and what is the Camel's Hump ? 



GEOGRAPHY. 107 

314. Wh at State is called the ' 'Switzerland of America"? 

315. When is it noon at the South Pole ? 

316. Where does the day begin ? 

317. How IS the earth's surface supposed to become 
round ? 

318. What States and Territories are now comprised 
in the province of Louisiana as acquired by the United 
States in 1803? 

319. How are rocks classified? 

320. Name the Barbary States. 

321. What is the origin of the name, Barbary States? 

322. Write in full, or place on a diagram, N, N b E, 
NNE, NE b N, NE, ENE b E. 

323. Where are the chief salt mines of the United 
States ? 

324. How wide is the Strait of Gibraltar ? 

325. How long is the Erie Canal ? How many locks 
on it? 

326. For what is Tasmania noted ? What is its capital ? 

327. What people are called Dutch ? 

328. To what is the lack of rain in the Sahara at- 
tributed ? 

329. What nation haa been semi-civilized but unpro- 
gressive for four thousand years? 

330. A's time is 10:45 A. m. at the same instant B's is 
12:35 P. M. — both correct. Is B east or west of A, and 
how many degrees? 

331. Name the islands composing the Balearic Isles? 

332. Give reason why Australia is so named. 

333. Describe a portage. 

334. Locate Lakes Pepin, Borgne, Constance, St. Clair, 
Tulare, and Peoria. 

335. In what season of the year does Christmas occur 
at Melbourne ? 

336. What is the origin of the name Patagonian ? 



108 GEOGRAPHY. 

337. What is a lagoon ? 

338. Is the water in a lagoon salt or fresh ? 

339. Is the equator of the earth a circle? Why? 

340. What canal connects Lakes Huron and Superior ? 

341. How long is the above named canal ? 

342. Locate the Sandwich Islands, name their capital, 
and state what form of government they have. 

343. Why is the earth nearer the sun in December 
than in June ? 

344. What are the equinoctial points? 

345. What are the solstitial points? 

346. What is the distinction between the British Isles 
and the British Empire ? 

347. What is remarkable of the rivers of Asia? 

348. Mention two of the most destructive earthquakes 
on record ? 

349. Locate the two antipodal centers of volcanic ac- 
tion. 

350. Why are the vertical rays of the sun warmer than 
the oblique rays? 

351. What is the common form of the land masses? 

352. What two forms of relief have the land masses? 

353. In what zone are coral islands found? Why? 
354 Where is the most remai'kable glacier region ? 

355. Where is the human family found in its highest 
physical perfection ? 

356. Explain how the water is ejected from a geyser. 

357. What are fossils, and what facts do they teach ? 

358. What are the principal Atlantic ports, on both 
continents, for the Trans-Atlantic steam lines? 

359. Where is St. Helena, and for what noted ? 

360. Bound the District of Columbia. Give its area 
and government. 

361. Where is Waterloo and for what noted? 

362. Where and what is the Vatican ? 



GEOGRAPHY. 109 

363. Where is Fiiigal's Cave? 

364. Locate the four most populous cities of the United 
States. 

365. What rivers of Asia do not flow into the ocean ? 

366. Why do the Gulf Stream and Japan Current flow 
to the north-east? 

367. Why do frosts occur in the fall a few miles from 
the Great Lakes, before it does along their shores ? 

368. Is southern Alaska warmer or colder than south- 
ern Greenland? Why? 

369. What produces the oases of the Sahara? 

370. What is their chief vegetation ? 

371. Locate the center of pojmlation in the United 
States for the years 1840, 1850, 1860, 1870, and 1880. 

372. What State bordering on Canada, is directly north 
of eastern Texas ? 

373. What are the relative positions of the equator and 
the ecliptic ? 

374. Why is Ireland called the Emerald Isle ? 

375. When is the earth entirely illuminated by one 
revolution on its axis ? 

376. What is a geographical or nautical mile ? 

377. What and where is the Gadsden Puix-hase? 

378. Where in the United States are these minerals 
mined: quicksilver, nickel, and mica? 

379. Locate the rainless regions of the world. 

380. Classify straits. 

381. What country contains the greatest population in 
proportion to its area ? 

382. What is a road or roadstead ? 

388. For what is Hampton Roads celebrated ? 

384. Locate the marble quarries in the United States. 

385. Locate the granite quarries in the United States. 

386. Name a city in South America about the same 
latitude south, as Havana in Cuba, is north. What is 
the latitude? 



110 GEOGRAPHY. 

387. What is the Peruvian Balsa ? 

888. What is the source of the Amazon River? 

389. Where is the Desert of Atacaraa ? 

390. What are the Banks of Newfoundland? 

391. F(,r what is Sebastopol famous ? 

392. What is the Ottoman Empire ? 

393. Where is Mecca, and for what noted ? 

394. What mineral wealth does the island of New- 
foundland possess ? 

395. Where is Newburgh, and for what celebrated? 

396. Locate and describe the Sea of Galilee. 

397. What and where was the first canal built in the 
United States ? 

398. For what is the city of Naples celebrated ? 

399. Describe the Kremlin at Moscow. 

400. What noted mountain in New Guinea? 

401. Where is the longest tunnel in the world? 

402. Where is the Vermillion Sea ? 

403. Where is Put-in-Bay ? For what noted ? 

404. Name three men who have contributed much 
knowledge on the science of physical geography. 

405. What are the popular names of the following cities: 
New Orleans, Brooklyn, Washington, D. C, New Haven, 
and Philadelphia ? 

406. What city is called the "City of the Violet 
Crown"? 

407. What place is called the "City of Spindles " ? The 
"City of Notions"? 

408. What place is called the ' ' City of the Violated 
Treaty"? 

409. Name some famous place of resort in the western 
portion of the United States. 

410. Name some popular health and pleasure resorts 
in the eastern part of the United States. 



GEOGRAPHY. HI 

411. What was the most northern point reached by 
the Greely expedition ? 

412. What is the capital of West Virginia? 

413. Locate the " horse latitudes." 

414. What is ethnography ? 

415. Wliat noted object of interest to tourists in Vir- 
ginia ? 

416. What Empire on the western liemisphere ? What 
important Kepublic on the Eastern ? 



ANSWERS 



QUESTIONS ON GEOGRAPHY. 



1. Its inertia, the attraction of the sun, and the influ- 
ence of the other planets. 

2. It is due to the attraction of the neighboring planets, 
which modify the effect of the sun's attraction. Were it 
not for the counteracting influence of the planets, the 
earth's path around the sun would l)e a circle. 

3. It is a general system by which time may be reck- 
oned in a uniform and accurate manner by the people of 
all nations throughout the globe. The system recognizes 
Greenwich as the prime meridian, and divides the earth's 
surface into 24 time belts marked in order west from the 
prime meridian by the 15th, 30th, 45th, 60th, and so on ; 
the clocks in any belt indicating one hour earlier time 
than that shown by those in the belt adjoining on the east; 
and one hour later time than that indicated by those in 
the belt adjoining on the west. The system was first proposed 
by Mr. Cleveland Abbe of the U. S. Weather Service, 
and having been recommended by the American Meteoro- 
logical Society, the Canadian Institute, and other learned 
bodies, it was adopted by all the leading railway lines in the 
United States and Canada, and put into operation on 
November 18, 1883. 

4. Five "standard meridians " have been adopted for 
the United States and Canada, viz : the 60th, 75thj 90thj 



GEOGRArHY. 113 

105th, and 120th west from Greenwich. The most east- 
ern division is named "Intercolonial Time," the next in 
order is " Eastern Time," that of the 90th meridian is 
" Central Time," the next "Mountain Time," and the 
most western division is called " Pacific Time." 

5. By the term climate we mean the state of the atmos- 
phere; whether it is hot or cold, healthy or unhealthy, dry 
or wet. Climate depends chiefly upon the distance from 
the equator, and the elevation above the sea. It is de 
pendent further upon the extentand relief of the country, 
its inclination and exposure, the direction of the prevailing 
winds, the proximity of large bodies of water, the trend of 
neighboring mountain chains, cultivation of the soil, the 
amount of forest land, and the character of the soil as to 
radiation and evaporation. 

6. The sun rises and day begins at the north pole on 
March 20th. The sun sets and day ends at the north pole 
on September 22d. Hence, noon occurs on the 21st day 
of June, at which time the sun is on the northern tropic, 
and appears to the observer at the north pole in its greatest 
altitude, being 23^ degrees above the horizon. 

7. A degree of latitude is longer near the poles than at 
the equator. It is due to the fact that the earth's polar 
diameter is shorter than its equatorial diameter, or that 
the earth is an oblate spheroid. 

8. A degree of longitude is equal in value to the one 
three-hundred-and-sixtieth part of the equator, or a like part 
of any parallel. As the parallels grow less in circumfer- 
ence with the increase of latitude, the value of a degree of 
longitude at the poles is zero. 

9. The sensible horizon is the line that bounds our 
view when standing upon the surface of the earth. The 
rational or celestial horizon lies below the sensible horizon, 
but parallel to it, its plane passing through the centre of 
the earth. If a person were elevated so as to behold the 



114 GEOGRAPHY. 

earth as a ball, the great circle marking the junction of 
earth and sky would be the true or rational horizon. 

10. When currents of moist air come in contact with 
objects of lower temperature, the moisture of the atmos- 
phere is condensed, and depo.sited as dew. 

11. Bounded north by Baden, Wurtemberg, and 
Bavaria ; east by the Tyrol ; south by Italy ; and west, and 
northwest by France. It is a republic, consisting of 22 
states or cantons, each independent in matters of home 
polity, but all form a Federal Union. 

12. Drawings representing portions of the surface of 
the globe on a plane surface. There are three principal 
kinds of projections: the orthographic, Mercator's, and the 
stereographic. 

] 3. Mercator's is used mostly for physical maps, from 
its convenience in showing directions. 

For the common outline maps, either the polar or equa- 
torial projection — forms of the stereographic system — is 
used. The jiolar projection shows the pole in the centre of 
the map, with the equator forming the border. The 
equatorial projection shows the equator passing through 
the centre of the map, with a meridian circle forming the 
border. 

14. A meridian circle is a great circle passing around 
the earth through the poles. A meridian is half of a mer- 
idian circle, and reaches from pole to pole. 

15. The average of the mean daily temperatures 
throughout the year is the mean annual temperature. The 
mean annual temperature is based upon the mean daily 
temperatures of a place. The mean daily temperature of 
a place is found by taking the average temperature for 24 
consecutive hours. 

16. Degrees of longitude are greatest at the equator. 
The equator is the greatest circumference on which longi- 
tude is reckoned, and one three-hundred-and-sixtiethof its 



(iEOURAPHY. 11{) 

length, or one degree, represents a greater value than a 
like part of any parallel on which longitude is measured. 

17. The zodiac is an imaginary zone or belt on the 
heavens, extending 8 degrees on either side of the ecliptic, 
and is divided into 12 parts of 30 degrees each, called the 
sigiis of the zodiac. 

18. Andorra, a nominal republic nestling among the 
snow-capped peaks of the Pyrenees, on the northeast 
boundary of Spain. Its independence dates from Charle- 
magne, A. D. 790. Population, 10,000. 

19. The specific gravity of the earth is 5§ ; that is, the 
average weight of the mass composing it is 5§ times as 
heavy as a globe of water of the same dimension as the 
earth. 

20. The sun with all the planets is moving through 
space with tremendous velocity. Meadler believes that 
the solar system is moving around Alcyone, the brightest 
star in the Pleiades, but his theory is not accejited by 
other astronomers. 

21. It distributes moisture over the continents, supports 
plant and animal life, takes up and neutralizes poisonous 
vapors, and retains and modifies the solar heat. 

22. Saturn has eight moons. 

23. It is the dividing line between the light and shadow 
cast upon the earth by the sun. 

In a darkened room hold a lamp in such a position as to 
let its rays fall upon the surface of a small globe, and it 
will quickly be observed that only one-half of the surface 
reflects the light, while the opposite half remains in dark- 
ness. The line separating the light from the darkness rep- 
resents the great circle of illumination. Now turn the 
globe upon its axis, and the portion that was in darkness 
will move into light, and the part that was in light, will 
move into darkness. This shows the succession of day and 
night, and illustrates clearly to the observer the great 
circle of illumination. 



\16 GEOGRAPHY. 

24. (a) Clouds are masses of vapor floating in the air, 
(b) Thej are formed by the temperature of a hirge mass of 
air being reduced below the dew point, when the moisture 
begins to collect in minute drops. If the condensation 
continues for a length of time, the drops become too heavy 
to be supported by the air, and they fall as rain. A mist 
or fog is a cloud near the surface of the earth. 

25. Lake Sirikol (Sirikul) situated in the Pamir 
Plateau, in East Turkestan. This phiteau is also called 
Tameer by some geographers, and the lake is given as the 
source of the Amoo River Sirikol is 15,600 feet high. 
Lake Titicacain Peru is but 12,846 feet above the sea level. 

26. The degree of inclination of the axis of the earth 
to the plane of its orbit. The axis is inclined from a ver- 
tical to the plane of the earth's orbit, 23^ degrees, and 
consequently the polar circles are located 23^ degrees from 
the poles, and the tropics 23^ degrees from the equator. 
If the axis of the earth were veitical to the plane of its 
orbit, there would be neither tropics nor polar circles. 

27. Castellou in Spain. 

Madrid is generally given in answer to this question, but 
Madrid is one-half degree north of the 40th parallel north 
latitude. 

28. The vertical angle contained between the sensible 
horizon and a line to the visible horizon. 

29. The point in the heavens directly over head. 

30. The nadir is the point directly under foot, or oppo- 
site the zenith. 

31. According to English reckoning it has no longitude, 
the prime meridian passing through the Royal Observatory 
situated in Greenwich Park. Reckoning from the meridian 
of Washington, it is 77° east. Its latitude is 51° 23' north. 

Besides the Royal Observatory, it is noted for the 
Greenwich Hospital for superannuated sailors, and the 
Academy for the education of the sons of sailors. It is a 



GEOCiRAI'HY. 117 

popular resort for Londoners from April till September. 

32. In one revolution around the sun, the earth makes 
366|- rotations. 

33. (a) Ascii is a term applied to the inhalntants of 
the torrid zone, and means shadtnvless. 

(b) Amphiscii is applied to the iidiabitants of the same 
region, and means double-shadowed. 

The reason for the api>lication of these terms is because 
at midday in the torrid zone the inliabitants either cast no 
shadow, or when they do, it falls at one period northward, 
and at another, southward, according as the sun is north or 
south of the equator. 

34. They are called Heteroscii, meaning other-shadowed, 
because at midday they cast their shadows in different di- 
rections. That is, those inhabiting the north temperate 
zone always cast their shadows towards the north pole, and 
those inhabiting tlie south temperate zone always cast 
their shadows towards the south pole. 

35. The inhabitants of the frigid zone during the 
period in which the sun is visible to them, cast their 
shadows toward every point of the compass, and hence are 
called Periscii, meaning circle-shadowed. 

36. Planets are those heavenly l)odies, including the 
earth, which belong to the solar system and revolve in 
elliptical orbits around the sun. The term planet means 
originally, wanderer. 

37. The planetoids may properly be called little plauet<. 
They are also known as asteroids, and occupy space in the 
solar system between Mars and Jujiiter. 

38. The earth rotates on its axis in 24 hours, and every 
point on its surface describes a circle, or 360 degrees, in 
that time. If it requires 24 hours for a point to move 
through 360 degrees, it will require 1 hour for it to 
move through 15 degrees. 

39. North by Wyoming lerritory and the State of Ne- 
braska ; east by Nebraska and Kansas ; south by Indian 



118 GEOORAPHY. 

Territory and New Mexico ; and west by Utah. Denver 
is its Capital. 

40. (a) It is the circle about the earth which marks 
the intersection of the plane of the earth's orbit with the 
earth's surface. 

If the axis of the earth were vertical to the plane of its 
orbit, this line of intersection would correspond to the 
equator. But the axis is not vertical, and hence the plane 
of the earth's orbit cuts the equator at an angle of as many 
degrees as the axis is inclined from a vertical, which is 
23^. This is termed the obliquity of the eeliptic. 

(b.) The ecliptic is so called because eclipses can take 
place only when the moon is at or near its plane. 

41. The length of the earth's orbit is about 577,000,000 
miles. 

42. The earth travels in its orbit at the rate of 68,400 
miles an hour, or about 19 miles a second. 

43. Darwin's theory of the formation of coral islands is 
now generally accepted by scientific men, and briefly, is as 
follows : The coral formation begins as afriyiging reef on the 
border of a slowly sinking island, and tlie upward growth 
of the reef, keeps pace with the subsidence of the island. 
The lateral growth is limited by the temperature of the 
water, and does not extend from the coast beyond where 
the water greatly exceeds 100 feet in depth, and thus the 
formation will gradually extend around the island, until it 
forms an encircling reef. The original island finally disap- 
pears, but the outline of its coast is marked by a low rim 
of coral enclosing a body of water called a lagoon. 

44. Coal in the great Appalachian bed covering parts of 
Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Ten- 
nessee. Iron in Ohio, Pennsylvania, Missouri, and Alabama. 
Gold in California, Arizonia, New Mexico, and Montana. 

45. It supposes the matter composing the solar system 
to have been originally a vast body of highly luminous 



GEOGRAPHY. HQ 

matter called nebula ; that this matter began to accumu- 
late around a center, and took a rotary form of motion; 
that it gradually cooled and contracted, and according to 
certain mechanical and physical laws, threw off ring-like 
portions of itself, which subsequently, under the same 
laws, formed the planets, and in like manner from de* 
tached portions of the planets their satellites were formed. 
Under this hypothesis the form and motions of the planets 
and their satellites can be proven on strict mechanical 
principles. 

46. (a) Lightning is the result of electrical discharges 
from the clouds. 

The electricity of the clouds is developed principally by 
evaporation on the earth's surface, and by the friction of 
large volumesof air of different densities against each other, 
(b) Thunder is produced by the air, which has been sepa- 
rated by a current of electricity, rushing together. 

47. It depends upon the latitude, elevation above the 
sea level, and the proximity of large bodies of water. 

The character of the surface with regard to forests, 
deserts, and mountain ranges also influences the tempera- 
ture of a region. 

48. The prevailing winds blow from the northeast over 
Mexico, and they are deprived of tlieir moisture in rising 
over the high ranges of the Sierra Madre, leaving the 
narrow coast plains along the Pacific almost rainless. 

49. It is due to the fact that the parts of the north 
parallels illuminated, exceed in length the jiarts in shadow. 
And the greater the excess of the lighted part of a parallel 
over that in shadow, the nearer the north point of the 
horizon will the sun rise and set, and in like ratio will the 
length of day exceed that of night. To illustrate, suppose 
a person to be at the arctic circle on the 20th of March. 
At that point, as at all places on the earth, the sun will be 
observed to rise due east, and to set due west. On each 



120 GEOGRAPHY. 

successive day, as the inclination of the axis towards the 
sun increases, the great circle of illumination will reach 
farther beyond the pole, the parts of the parallels in light 
will correspondingly exceed in length the parts in shadow and 
the sun will rise and set farther and farther to the north of 
due east and west. On the 21 st of June the sun reaches the 
northern tropic, the great circle of illumination extends 
heyond the pole to the arctic circle, and the sun will be ob- 
served, at that time, to rise directly in the north point of 
the horizon, and to set at the same place. Then as the 
axis begins to turn from the sun, the line separating the 
light and shadow will gradually return to the poles, until 
September the 22d, when the days and nights are equal, 
and the sun will again be seen to rise directly in the east 
and to set directly in the west. 

50. (a) Tides, waves, and currents. 

(b) Tides are caused by the attraction of the sun and 
moon. 

(c) Waves are produced principally by the action of the 
wind on the surface of the water. 

(d) Currents are formed by the rotation of the earth 
on its axis, the unequal heating of the vsvst areas of water, 
and by the presence of animalculse in the tropical portions 
of the ocean. The influence of the little coral animal in 
setting the oceanic waters in motion has not received due 
attention from many geographers until of late. 

51. Sidereal year is the space of time intervening be- 
tween the departure of the earth from a fixed star, and its 
return to the same. Its length is 365 days, 6hrs., 9 min., 
9.6 sec. 

Tropical year, the time between two successive passages 
of the sun through the vernal equinox. Its length is 365 
days 5 hr. , 48 min., 49.7 sec. 

Anomalistical year, the space intervening between the 
passage of the earth from perihelion to perihelion again. 
Its length is 365 days 6 hr., 13 min., 49.6 sec. 



GEOGRAPHY. 121 

Civil year, the year legalized by any nation. In the 
United States, for instance, tlie year is understood to begin 
on January 1st., and to end on December 31st. 

52. They are generally believed to be owing to the 
lorce exerted by highly heated gases in the interior of the 
earth, 

53. Aphelion is that point in the earth's orbit marking 
its greatest distance from the sun. 

Perihelion is that point in the earth's orbit marking its 
nearest approach to the sun. The earth is at aphelion in 
June, and at perihelion in December. 

54. The mathematical zones are bounded by mathe- 
matical lines on the earth's surface, namely : the equator, 
the tropics and the polar circles. 

The north torrid zone lies between the equator and 
the tropic of cancer ; the south torrid between the equator 
and the tropic of Capricorn; the north temperate zone lies be- 
tween the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ; the south 
temperate between the tropic of Capricorn and the ant- 
arctic circle; the north frigid zone is bounded by the arctic 
circle ; the south frigid by the antarctic circle. 

55. (a) Lines that connect places on the earth's surface 
having the same mean annual temperature. 

(b) Lines that connect places beneath the earth's sur- 
face having the same mean temperature. 

56. The Torrid Zone is bounded by the isotherm mark- 
ing a mean annual temperature of 70 degrees, Fahr. 

The Temperate Zonea lie between the isotherms of 70 de- 
grees and 32 degrees, north and south. 

The Frigid Zones, north and south, are bounded by the 
isotherms of 32 degrees, and extend to the poles. 

57. It is the March or spring equinox. It occurs on 
March 20th, when the sun is on the equator ; then the 
days and nights are equal. 

58. The sun crosses the equator March 20th, and again 
September 22d, making two equinoxes in a year. 



122 GEOGRAPHY. 

59. Because of the diversity of diameter of the earth's 
surface. If the surface of the earth were uuiforni in char- 
acter, the Hues bounding the physical and the mathematical 
zones would coincide. 

60. Tiie Casiquiare River is in the southern jiart of 
Venezuela, and connects the Orinoco with the Guainia 
River, a tributary of the Amazon. It is peculiar in the 
formation of its channel, which is so level that the water 
flows a part of the time in one direction, and the remain- 
der of the time in the opposite direction. The course of 
the current changes with the rise and fall of the head 
waters of the Orinoco. 

61. The West Indies, the China Seas, and the Indian 
Ocean. 

62. The rotary movement of cyclones in the northern 
hemisphere is from right to left, or opposite the movement 
of the hands of a clock. Their progressive movemc nt in 
this hemisphere is nortliwest to about latitude 30 degrees, 
and then northeast to 40 or 45 degrees. In the southern 
hemisphere their rotary motion is with the movement of the 
hands of a clock, and their progressive motion is south- 
west to about the 30th parallel, when the course is changed 
to the southeast, and does not reach beyond the 45th 
jjarallel. 

63. From 2 to 11 degrees north latitude, over the 
oceanic waters. It is caused by the ascending currents of 
air neutralizing the lateral currents. In mid ocean, where 
the polar curi-ents encounter the equatorial, are found the 
regions known as the Calms of Cancer, and the Calms of 
Capricorn. 

64. Hail is frozen rain. 

The rotary theory is probably the best solution of the 
formation of hail. It supposes that two clouds, one of 
snow, and the other of rain exist, the one above the other, 
and that a current of air rotating about a horizontal axis, 



GEOGRAPHY. 123 

catches up theraiii-drops, and whirls them alternately from 
the rain-cloud, to the snow-cloud above, until the drops 
fall as hail. This explains the alternate coats of ice and 
snow of which the hailstone is formed. 

65. The greater portion of the entire country would 
become a scorching desert, because the southeast trades 
which carry moisture over the continent would be de- 
prived of it in rising over the Andes. The Pacific slope of 
Peru is a desert because the southeast trades are deprived 
of their moisture in rising over the Andes. 

66. (a.) Vesuvius in Italy, near the city of Naples, 
(b.) On account of its great eruption in A. D. , 79, when 

three cities, Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae, were 
entirely destroyed. 

67. Stromboli on one of the Lipari Islands north of 
Sicily. It has given out lava for 2, 000 years, and from its 
constant light, is called the ' 'Lighthouse of the Mediterra- 
nean " 

68. Coal. 

69. Iron. 

70. Gold. 

71. In several countries of Europe, and in the States 
of Wisconsin, Missouri, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. 

72. (a) The iron ore, as it runs in scathing streams 
from the furnace, is conducted off through earthern gut- 
ters into hollow molds of sand, about three feet long and 
three inches wide and deep. These, from their lying side 
by side like a litter of pigs, are called pig-iron. 

(b) Charcoal is formed by burning wood under a cover 
of earth and sod. It is almost pure carbon. 

73. It is obtained by heating coal in an air-tight vessel. 
The gas generated is conducted off into a tank, from which 
it is carried to houses and shops to furnish light. The re. 
maining portion of the coal is called coke. 

74. In England ; they are more than 2,000 feet be- 
neath the surface of the earth. 



124 GEOGRAPHY. 

75. (a) The great rapids, and Mm chison Falls 120 feet 
high in the upper course of the river. 

(b) The annual overflow which has occurred year after 
year for ages, rising each year within a few hours of the 
same time, and within a few inches of the same height. 

(c) It receives no tributaries for a distance of more 
than 1,500 miles up its course from its mouth. 

(d) Its waters render fertile the whole length of the land 
of Egypt. 

(e) It is one of the longest rivers of the world, and at its 
mouth has formed one of the largest deltas on the globe. 

(f ) The question of its source has received the attention 
of geographers for hundreds of years. 

76. It is a kind of meal obtained from a species of 
palm found principally in Borneo, Sumatra, and various 
islands of the Indian Archipelago It is valuable as a food 
for man, one tree producing enough to supply the want of 
one person a year. It is extensively used in the manu- 
facture of starch for the calico manufactories. 

77. It is a kind of hard, l)lack coal that burns very 
readily in sticks or splinters. From its use for candles, 
comes the name "canuel coal," a corruption of "caudle coal." 

78. (a) From New York across the Atlantic to Gibraltar, 
through the Mediterranean Sea, through tlie Suez Canal, 
Red Sea, and Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, across the Gulf 
of Aden and Arabian Sea to Bombay. 

(b) Across the Atlantic, down the African coast, doubling 
Cai)e Horn and Agulhas, through Mosambicjue Channel, 
across the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea to Bombay. 

7l> (a) In Brazil, Arabia, Abyssinia, Java, West 
Indies, Central America, Venezuela, Guiana, Peru, Bo- 
livia, and ( V'ylon. 

(b) It takes its name frojn Kafl^i, a region south of Abys- 
sinia. 

80. New York, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Mississippi, 
and North Carolina. 



GEOGRAPHY. 125 

81. (a) The Mainniotb Cave, the largest known 
cavern in the world, in Edmonson County, Ky., on the 
left bank of the Green River. 

(b) The National Yellowstone Park in the northwest 
part of Wyoming. 

(c) The Yosemite Valley and Park in California. 

82. All ])laces on the equator. 

83. On the prime meridian, or at the poles. - ' 

84. (a) Bounded north by Wyoming Territory and 
the State of Nebraska ; east by Nebraska and Kansas ; 
south by Indian Territory and New Mexico; west by 
Utah. 

(b) Because it became a State August 1, 1876, the year 
of the Republic's first Centennial. 

85. It gives rise to a variety of vegetable and animal 
life, and makes a narrow coast plain on the Pacific with no 
navigable rivers, and forms lofty table lands and vast 
prairies traversed by mighty rivers on the opposite slope. 

86. In the North Sea between England, Germany, and 
France. 

87. Near the Island of New Zealand In the South 
Pacific. 

88. The waters of the Mediterranean would spread over 
a great portion of the Sahara, forming vast lakes in the de- 
pressions of the desert. The climate of southern Europe 
would become colder, and portions of the Sahara would 
become fertile plains. 

89. The moon completes its revolution around the earth 
in about 27 days, and there being 365 days in a year, it 
follows that "thirteen moons" are seen in a year. The 
time of a revolution as here given is not that of an exact 
lunar month, wliich is 29^ days. 

90. Because the clouds prevent great radiation of heat 
from the surface of the earth, and objects do not become 
cold enough to condense the moisture of the atmosphere. 



126 GEOGRAPHY. 

91. From 150 to 200 miles wide. 

The tide flows up this river over 500 miles. 

92. Opium, hasheesh, and tobacco. 

93. Suez, between the Mediterranean and the Gulf of 
Suez. 

Panama, between North and South America. 

Tehuantepec, lietween Campeachy Bay and the Gulf of 
Tehuan tepee. 

Kraw, uniting the Malay Peninsula with Siam. 

Perekop, connects the Crimea with the main land of 
Russia. 

94. New York on Manhattan Island, Brooklyn on Long 
Island, and Galveston on Galveston Island. 

95. Bounded north by the St Lawrence River, Lake 
Ontario, Niagara River, and Lake Erie ; east by Vermont, 
Lake Chaniplain, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the 
Atlantic Ocean ; south by the Atlantic, New Jersey, and 
Pennsylvania ; west by Pennsylvania, Lake Erie, and the 
Niagara River. 

96. Thunder-storms are the result of great electrical 
discharges from the clouds. The development of electricity 
depends upon changes of temperature of the atmospheric 
vapor, chemical action upon the earth's surface, and evap- 
oration. As these are greater in summer than in winter, 
it is seen that thunder-storms will be more frequent at that 
season of the year, than at the latter. 

97. It is an electrical phenomenon which occurs in 
high latitudes. It is due to the electric discharges passing 
through highly rarefied air in the upper regions of the 
atmosphere. 

Aurora anstralis is a like phenomenon seen in high 
southern latitudes. 

98. By soine it is supposed to be due to the ether fill- 
ing the space between our atmosphere and the sun. Others 
believe it is caused by the double reflection of the white 



GEOGRAPHY. 127 

light of the sun, which producing a *polarized condition of 
the light, imparts to vision the sensation of a delicate blue. 

99. It is a faiut glo\yiug of the waters as seen at certain 
times, and is owing to the presence of myriads of animal- 
cules, which have the power of emitting a momentary glow 
similar to that of the "lightning bug." 

100. It is a rainbow produced by the light from the 
moon, and is fainter than the solar phenomenon because 
the reflected light of the moon is less intense than the 
direct rays of the sun. 

101. From east to west, or opposite to the earth's axial 
motion. 

The velocity of the moon in its revolution around the 
earth is not so great as the earth's axial velocity, the moon 
losing in one rotation of the earth, a space equal to about 
50 minutes time, and as the tide wave, when not deflected 
by the continents, keeps pace with the moon, it will of 
necessity move from east to west. 

102. The degree of inclination of the earth's axis from 
a vertical to the plane of the orbit of the earth determines 
the location of the tropics and the polar circles; whatever 
the degree of inclination, that will be the distance of the 
tropics from the equator, and the distance of the polar 
circles fiom the poles. In the case supposed, the latitude 
of the tiopics would be 15 degrees from the equator, and 
that of the arctic and antarctic circles 75 degrees. 

The torrid zone would be 30, the frigids each 15, and 
the temperates each 60 degrees wide. 

103. Thirty degrees each, reckoning a north and a south 
torrid. 

104. The inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of 
its orbit, the annual revolution of the earth, and the con- 
vexity of its surface. 



* Polarized light is light which has been subjected to compound refraction. 



128 GEOGRAPHY. 

105. Within the torrid zone. Because the sun's rays 
are vertical over some portion of this zone throughout the 
year. 

106. (a) On March 20t!i, and September 22d, or at 
the vernal, and autumnal equinoxes. 

(b) Because at these times the great circle of illumin- 
ation passes through the poles. 

107 Corsica, to France ; Candia, to Turkey ; Sardinia 
and Sicily, to Italy; and Majorca, to Spain. 

108. By rail to New York via Chicago and Cleveland; 
by steamer from New York to Alexandria via of Harve 
and Gibraltar ; by steamer from Alexandria to Canton via 
Suez Canal, Red Sea, Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, Arabian 
Sea, Indian Ocean, Strait of Malacca, Singapore, and 
South China Sea, 

109. The Dead Sea in Palestine, Great Salt Lake in 
Utah, Aral Sea in southwest Siberia, Caspian Sea in south- 
east Russia, and LakeTsad in the Soudan. 

110. They are more or less saline, except Lake Tsad 
which contains fresh water. Having no outlets their wa- 
ters evaporate rapidly, and leave the saline matter carried 
into their basins by the streams entering them, as sediment, 
which yearly increases the saltness of their waters. 

111. In summer the laud masses become warmer than 
the waters of the ocean, and in winter the land becwnes 
colder than oceanic regions. 

112. An eclipse of the sun is caused by the moon pass- 
ing over the sun's disc, either totally or partially obscuring 
it. 

An ecli})se 'of the moon is caused l)y the shadow of the 
earth falling upon it, either partially or entirely obscuring 
it. 

113. The vapor rising from the water flowing from the 
Gulf Stream comes in contact with the cold winds blow- 
ing from the Arctic regions, and is condensed into mist or 
fog. 



GEOGRAPHY. 129 

114. Land, air, water, plants, and animals, as also, 
civilization and government, and the earth's relation to the 
other planets. 

115. In their modes of formation, lines of trend, and 
size ; oceanic islands as a rule being much smaller than con- 
tinental island. They differ also in their productions. 

116. Thirteen: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode 
Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jer- 
sey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South 
Carolina, and Georgia. 

1 1 7. There are thirty-eight. 

118. Russia is an unlimited monarchy, England is a 
constitutional monarchy, and France is a republic. 

119. On the north coast of Ireland. It is a renuirkable 
rocky formation, composed of huge hexagonal columns ar- 
ranged vertically, and forming a kind of platform or bridge 
extending into the sea. Its name comes from the popular 
tradition that giants formed it in order to cross over to 
Scotland. 

120. They are winds that prevail over the Indian 
Ocean, blowing from the southwest from April to Octo- 
ber, and then after a short period of variable winds and 
storms, they change and blow from the northeast until 
April. 

121. Antipodes are those inhabitants of the earth that 
are diametrically opposite to each other. Their seasons 
and times of the day and night are opposite. 

122. In the St. Lawrence River near Lake Ontario. 
There are about 1500 of these islands, and from their pict- 
uresque situation, they have become a famous summer re- 
sort. 

123. Switzerland bounded north by the German Em- 
pire, east by the Tyrol ; south by Italy ; and west by France. 

Andorra lying in the Pyrenees between France and Spain. 
France bounded north by the English Channel and Bel- 



130 GEOGRAPHY. 

giura ; east by the German Empire, Switzerland and Italy ; 
south by the Mediterranean and Spain ; west by the Bay 
of Biscay and the Atlantic Ocean. 

124. One nearly inclosed by land. 

125. The Mediterranean Sea between Europe and 
Africa ; Gulf of Mexico between Mexico and the United 
States ; Hudson Bay in British America ; and the Black 
Sea between Europe and Asia, 

126. The 'peculiarities of its animal life are : 
The absence of large quadrupeds. 

The number and variety of marsupials. 
No large or venomous serpents. 
The swan are black. 
The brilliancy of plumage of its birds. 
The peculiarities of its plant life are : 
Trees without branches or leaves. 
The giant lily, tea tree, and arborescent ferns. 
Few of the trees and shrubs produce edible fruit. 
The trees do not form forests, but are thinly planted. 
Of 8000 species of plants, nine-tenths are unconnected 
with the vegetation of the other parts of the world. 

127. Apogee is the point of the moon's orbit farthest 
from the earth. 

Perigee is the point of the moon's orbit nearest the 
earth. 

128 The earth in perihelion travels faster than in 
aphelion, hence the terms the sun " slow" or " fa.st " 

129. It is the accepted line from which every date on 
the earth is reckoned, and where, so to speak, time makes 
a leap of 24 hours, or one day. Such a line might be 
considered as coinciding with any meridian on the earth, 
but for convenience it has been fixed in the Pacific, touch- 
ing no land area, but the small dot on the map known as 
Chatham Island. The inhabitants of this small island 
have earliest time on the earth. 



GEOGRAPHY. 131 

The date Ihie as given on charts begins at the north pole, 
passes south through Behring Strait, then bears off toward 
the coast of Ja})an, crosses the 240th meridian at its junction 
with the 20th parallel north, then curving between Manila 
and Borneo, crosses the equator north of New Guinea, and 
passing north and east of New Zealand, crosses Chatham 
Island, and thence south to the pole. Places on the 
western side of this line, have time 24 hours in advance of 
places on the eastern side of it. When for instance, it was 
Tuesday, May 26th on the west of this line, it was Monday 
May 25th on the east of it. 

130. At Cherrapongi in India, where the annual rain- 
fall is over 600 inches. 

131. The refraction or bending of the rays of light in 
passing obliquely from the sun to the earth through the air. 
A ray of light so penetratiug the atmosphere, is bent more 
and more towards the perpendicular, as it reaches denser 
layers of air, and so we are enabled to receive the light of 
the sun when it is far below the horizon. 

132. Because of the variation of the sun's altitude at 
any given place, and the consequent change of obliquity 
of it rays. 

133. All tropical countries have little or no twilight. 

134. (a) Appearance of objects at sea. 

(b) Circular form of the horizon. 

(c) Circumnavigation. 

(d) Appearance of Polar vStar. 

(e) Force of gravity. 

(f ) Shadow of the earth during lunar eclipse. 

(g) Measui-ements of celestial and terrestrial arcs. 

135. On March 20th, and September 22d. 

Because the sun is then on the equator, the great circle 
of illumination passes through the poles, and the parts of 
the parallels in light, equal the parts in shadow. (See an- 
swer to question 49). 



132 GEOGRAPHY, 

136. It is due to the extreme rareness of the air at 
great elevations, and to the small area of radiating surface. 

137. The Empire of Japan. 

138. If a shadow were cast, it would fall south. At 
any pleice within the artic circle except the pole, objects 
(during the period in which the sun is visible to them) suc- 
cessively cast their shadows towards every point of the 
compass. 

139. It will be 2 o'clock P. M. at St. Augustine, dif- 
ference of latitude not being considered in reckoning time 
but only difference of longitude. Since Cleveland and 
St. Augustine lie under the same meridian, their time is 
the same. 

140. Azoic, Palteozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic, and Age of 
Man. 

141. Azoic Age, the period of no life. 

Palteozoic. Age, the period of ancient life. It is subdi- 
vided into the age of molliisks, the age of fishes, and the age 
of cooj^lants, or the carboniferous. 

Mesozoic Age, the period of reptiles. 

Cenozoic Age, the period in which animals and plants re- 
semble those on the earth at present. It is distinguished 
by the predominance of mammals. 

Age of Man, the period marked by the creation of man, 
and in which the present animals and plants were intro- 
duced. 

142. It is the line marking the height above the sea 
level, below which all the snow that falls annually, melts 
during the summer. It may properly be defined as the 
line marking the region of jierpetual snow. 

143. Missouri and Tennessee. 

144. The most extensive tin mines are those of Corn- 
wall, the extreme soutliwcst county of England 

145. Borneo, Sumatra, and Celebes. 

146. (a) Tlie inclination of the earth's axis to the 
plane of its orbit ; 



GEOGRAPHY. 133 

(b) The constant parallelism of the earth's axis, or the 
fact that its north poki always points to the north star ; 

(c) The revolution of the earth around the sun. 

147. (a) The land hemisphere. 

(b) Because the heat of the sun is lost on the vast ex- 
panse of the water hemisphere, which is traversed by pow- 
erful currents from the Antarctic Ocean. 

148. (a) In the State of New York, on the Hudson 
River, 52 miles north of New York City. 

(b) It is noted for the United States Military Academy, 
and as being the place of Arnold's treason. 

149. (a) In June. 

(b) The earth's path around the sun is an ellipse, and 
the sun being in its foci, the earth must necessarily be 
farther from the sun at certain times than at others. 

150. Ninety-one and one half millions of miles. 

151. The level of the Dead Sea being about 1,400 feet 
below the surfece of the Mediterranean, the water of the 
latter would flow into the former. 

152. (a) In reckoning latitude and longitude in con- 
nection with time. 

(b) In the study of the motions of the eailh with regard 
to the sun and the planets. 

(c) In the study of the crust of the earth, as to its for- 
mation, composition and so forth. 

(d) In the study of the fauna of a country. 

153. (a) In West Virginia, at the junction of the 
Shenandoah with the Potomac River, about 53 miles north- 
west of Washington City. 

(b) As the place of the treason of John Brown, Oct. 16, 
1859. 

154. (a) In the Pacific, west of California ; 

(b) In the Atlantic between Florida and the Canary Is- 
lands ; 

< c) In the southern hemisphere between the Indian 
Ocean and the Antarctic. 



134 GEOGRAPHY. 

They are formed by the collection of masses of seaweed 
in the great swirliug bodies of water amoug the oceanic 
currents. 

155. (a) About 1,650 miles. 

(b) Valentia Bay, Ireland, and Heart's Content, New- 
foundland. 

156. The surface current flows from the Pacific into 
the Arctic Ocean. 

157. Lake Tsad. Lake Ngami in South Africa, also, 
has no outlet. 

158. (a) It is the harbor of Constantinople. 

(b) From the magnificent view the harbor and city 
presents. 

159. Gibraltar, the strongest fortification in the world; 
The Island of Malta, the chief station of the British Medi- 
terranean fleet, on which there is an extensive arsenal and 
dock-yard. 

160. Pittsburgh, originally Fort Duquesne, afterwards 
Fort Pitt. New York, at first called New Amsterdam, 
later New Orange. 

161. (1) A pendulum vibrates faster near the poles 
than near the equator, and as its vibrations depend upon 
the force of gravity, it is inferred that the surface at the 
poles is nearer the center of the earth, than at the equator. 
This necessarily would make the polar diameter shorter 
than the equatorial, and the earth an oblate spheroid. 

(2) A degree of latitude as measured by the stars is 
longer near the poles than near the equator, thus proving 
that the earth is flattened at the poles. This proof will read- 
ily be understood, when it is stated that a degree of latitude 
is the distance traveled along a meridian, either north or 
south, towards a fixed star, which will cause it to rise one 
degree in altitude in the heavens. For example, at the 
equator, the north polar star is just visible on the horizon. 
When we travel along a meridian toward it, until it ap- 



GEOGRAPH'i 135 

pears one degree above the horizon, we have passed over 
one degree of the earth's surface. (See answer 183.) 

(3) The rotation of the earth on its axis would cause 
the matter composing it, while in a semi-fluid condition, to 
gather about the equator, 

162. (a) In mountainous regions ; near the border of 
sinking oceans where the line of fracture separates the 
ocean bed from the coast ; or wherever the crust is greatly 
flexed or traversed by deep fissures. 

(b) Because in these places the crust is weakest, and the 
highly compressed gaseous matter within can here more 
readily escape. 

163. The Atlantic. 

164. It is co-extensive with the State of Panama, one 
of the States of Colombia. 

165. First, the right of its people to participate in the 
general authority of the nation ; 

Second, the right of its inhabitants to govern them- 
selves in matters of State ; 

Third, the people are granted and pledged a republican 
form of government. 

166. North Sea, Baltic Sea, White Sea, Kara Sea, 
Caspian Sea, Sea of Azof, Black Sea, Sea of Marmora, 
Adriatic Sea, and Mediterranean Sea. 

167. Its coast-line. 

168. A loch is a lake as termed in Scotland ; 
A lough is a lake as written in Ireland ; 

A naze is a head-laud or promontory ; 

A cape is a narrow point of land extending into the sea. 

169. Of the House of Representatives chosen directly 
by the people, and the House of Senators chosen by the 
legislatures of the States. 

170. About 3,800, of which Niphon, Yesso, Kiusiu, and 
Sikoke are the largest. 

171. Over the region bounded l)y the tropics. 



136 GEOGRAPHY. 

172. (a) In the Himalaya Mountains, a peak of which, 
Mount Everest, is over 29,000 feet high. 

(b) In the region of the Dead Sea — 1,381 feet below the 
level of the Mediterranean. 

173. It is a great commercial depot in the trade be- 
tween Russia and China. It is situated south of Lake 
Baikal, on the boundary between Siberia and Mongolia. 

174. On the southeast coast of Massachusetts. 

175. It is controlled by a Stock Company entitled the 
Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez, incor- 
porated in Fi'ance and Egypt, and of which Ferdinand de 
Lesseps, the originator of the scheme, and engineer of the 
canal, is President (1885\ 

176 (a) It is the narrow entrance to the land-locked 
harbor of San Francisco. 

(b) It IS the Pacific entrance to the great gold 
fields of California, the city of San Francisco being the 
principal emporium of the gold mining districts of that 
State. 

177. (1) The character of the surface as regards forests 
and deserts ; 

(2) The altitude above the sea level ; 

(3) Oceanic currents ; 

(4) The trend of mountain ranges ; 

(5) Large water areas. 
.178. The Dead Sea. 

It has been asserted of late that small fishes have been 
seen below the surface of the Dead Sea, but it is yet a 
matter in dispute. 

179. Lake Superior. Its surface area is about the same 
as that of the State of Indiana. 

180. By the accumulation of great masses of snow in 
elevated regions, which, from the enormous pressure to 
which it is subjected, forms a vast field of slowly moving 
ice, 



GEOGRAPHY. 137 

181, At Moscow in Russia. It is called the Czar Kol- 
okol, or king of bells, its weight being 432,000 pounds. 

182. Llanos are treeless regions of north-west South 
America. They have a wet and a dry season, and during 
the former period they resemble deserts. 

Selvas are extensive tracts along the Amazon in South 
America, which are covered with gigantic trees and an 
undergrowth of vines, and other vegetation, forming a for- 
est so dense as to be almost impenetrable. 

183. At the equator the north polar star is just visible on 
the horizon. In passing along a meridian from the equator 
towards the north pole, the polar star increases in altitude 
until the pole is reached, when it is seen in the zenith, or 
it has apparently passed through an arc of 90 degrees. 
Then since a degree of latitude is the distance required to 
be traveled along a meridian far enough to cause the 
polar star to rise one degree in altitude, it is clear that 
near the poles where the surface is sliglitly flattened, a 
greater distance would be traveled to elevate the polar 
star one degree, than near the equator where the surface 
is greatly curved, (See answer 161), 

184, Tlie Caspian Sea is over four times as large as 
Lake Superior. 

185. Iceland, New Zealand, and Montana and Wyom- 
ing, 

186, Prof Bunsen supposes the water in the lower por- 
tion of the geyser tube to become heated to such a degree 
as to overcome the pressure of the column of li(juid above, 
when it is discharged in a boiling stream. This gives 
temporary relief, and the waters again fill the tube, the 
lower portions gradually heat until the expansive force 
overcomes the pressure of the mass above, when another 
discharge takes place ; and so the gathering and discharg- 
ing of the waters continually succeed each other until the 
geyser becomes extinct. 



138 GEOGRAPHY. 

187. In North America, Mount St. Elias, 17,900 feet. 
In South America, Aconcagua, 23,910 feet. 

In Europe, Mount BUmc, 15,787 feet. 
In Asia, Mount Everest, 29, 100 feet. 
In Africa, Mount Kenia, 20,000 feet. 
In Australia, Mount Kosciusko, 6,500 feet. 

188. The 20th meridian west, and the 160th meridian 
east of Greenwich. 

189. The Gulf Stream is a current of warm water which 
issues from the basin of the Mexican Gulf and Caribbean 
Sea into the Atlantic, through Florida Strait. Thence it 
flows northward parallel to the coast to the Carolinas, 
when it deflects to the northeast, skirting the Banks of 
Newfoundland on the south, and then taking its course to- 
wards the British Isles, washes their western and northern 
border, and passing to the west and nortii of Norway, is 
lost in the cold waters of the Arctic Ocean. It is over 
fifty miles wide in its narrowest place, and flows at a rate 
of from four to five miles an hour. Its temperature in the 
region of its origin is 86 degrees Fahr. 

It causes the climate of Great Britain, as all of northwest 
Europe, to be comparatively mild, and very moist. 

190. They are due to the heated interior, and the con- 
tractions and flexions of the crust while it was compara- 
tively thin. 

191. The heat of the sun is lost on the vast body of 
water in the southern hemisphere ; and, the cold currents 
from the Antarctic regions, bearing numerous icebergs, 
have an influence in making the region colder than at the 
same latitude in the land masses of the northern regions. 

192. It is situated partly in Wyoming, Montana, and 
Idaho, but most of it lies in the north-west angle of Wy- 
oming. The region was explored by a party sent by the 
government, iu 1 870, under the direction of Prof Hayden, 
and at his suggestion it was set aside by Congress as a Na- 
tional Park. 



GEOGRAPHY. 139 

It is the center of the most wonderful volcanic forma- 
tions in North America. In it are numerous geysers and 
mineral hot springs " with decorations more beautiful than 
human art ever conceived, and which have required thou- 
sands of years for Nature's hands to form." Within its 
borders is the celebrated Yellowstone Lake, from which 
rises the river of the same name, whose canons, and water- 
falls have been the admiration of artists, tourists, and others, 
since the discovery of this region. 

193. The State of Iowa. 

194. (a) The high temperature and great evaporation 
of the equatorial waters ; 

(b) The influence of marine animals, the coral insect in 
particular ; 

(c) The rotation of the earth upon its axis. 

195. Kansas. 

To show this, trace a line from the northeast part of 
Maine to the southwest corner of California ; then trace 
another from the north west part of Washington Territory to 
the southeast point of Florida, and the State in which these 
lines cross each other will be the geographical center of the 
United States. 

196. The Republic of Switzerland. Its capital is Berne. 

197. Holland, according to its area. 
China, the greatest length in miles. 

198. St. Peter's at Rome, Italy. 

199. There are iibout 270. Of these, 175 are on islands 
and 95 on the coasts of the continents. 

200. The tobacco plant. 

201. (a) The India-rubber tree found in Brazil and 
Central America ; 

(b) The pine-tree which grows extensively in the Caro- 
linas, Canada, and Sweden. 

(c) The sugar-maple tree found in extensive forests in 
many parts of North America. 



140 GEOGRAPHY. 

202. Camphor is obtained from the wood and bark of 
camphor trees in China, Borneo, Sunuitra, and Japan. 

Opium, from the white po})py of India and Persia. 
Hasheesh, from a hemp grown in Rnssia. 
Castor-oil, from the seeds of the castor-oil phuit of Africa, 
America, and Europe. 

203. In China, as early as the year (J5 A. D. 

204. Between New York and Brooklyn, over the East 
River. 

205. Deciduous, those that shed their leaves in 
Autumn. 

Endogenous, those that increase in size by internal 
growth. 

Indigenous, those that are native of a certain country 
or climate. 

206. Amsterdam and Venice. 

207. In the province of Ontario ; it connects Lake 
Erie with Lake Ontario. 

208. They are deep borings in the earth, from which 
water issues on the surface. 

The name comes from Artois a province of France, 
where they were first bored. 

20y. It makes the strip of country bordering it across 
the land of Egypt, extremely fertile. Besides, it supplies 
the whole population along its course with fresh watei', and' 
furnishes a highway for commerce between the Mediter- 
ranean and the countries of the Upper Nile. (See au- 
svvr 75). 

210. (a) Silt is eroded material carried from the upper 
to the lower courses of rivers. 

(b) Drift timber carried from wooded regions, and 
lodged along the course of a river. 

(c) The Red and Mackenzie Rivers. 

211. A dry-dock is one from which the water may be 
shut out, so that vessels may be repaired. 



GEOGRAPHY. 141 

The finest one in the United States is at Brooklyn, New 
York. 

212. A point on the equator moves through a distance 
of 25,000 miles in 24 hours, or about 1,042 miles an hour. 

213. The change of day and night. Oceanic Currents. 

214. The Mississippi; 3,560 miles. 

With the Missouri which is the parent stream, the Miss- 
issippi is 4396 miles in length. 

215. Mount Everest in the Himalaya Mountains; 
29,100 feet. 

216. The Chinese Empire is the most populous: per- 
haps the British Empire is the greatest in the true sense of 
the term. 

217. (a) Borneo; area 300,000 square miles. Late 
authorities give Papua, or New Guinea, a greater area 
than Borneo. 

(b) Loudon, England ; population in the year 1881, 
4,764,312 souls, or over one and a half millions more peo- 
ple than the State of Ohio had at that time. 

218. (a) The science which teaches the constitution 
of the whole system of worlds. 

(b) The description of a particular place, city, town, 
parish, country, or tract of land. 

219. In Turkey in Europe. They extend southward 
into Greece. 

220. (1) The area of its basin exceeds that of any 
other river on the globe. 

(2) The tide flows up its mouth for 500 miles. 

(3) Its estuary is nearly 200 miles wide. 

(4) It receives more large and navigable tributaries 
than any other river. 

(5) It is navigable for about 3,000 miles. 

(6) It is one of the largest, if not the largest, river in 
the world. 

221. South. 

All places on the earth are south of the north pole. 



142 GEOGRAPHY. 

222. December 21st, 12 o'clock M. (See answer 49.) 

223. About one-seventeenth; or 3,000,000 of the 53,- 
000,000 square miles of land surface on the globe. 

224. The principal anthracite beds are between Potts- 
ville and Wyoming in Pennsylvania. 

Pennsylvania exceeds any other State of the Union in 
deposits of bituminous coal, the total area of her coal-fields 
being 20,000 square miles, or as great as that of all West- 
ern Europe. 

225. By the crumbling of rocks through the agency 
of heat, moisture, and freezing. The upper covering of 
the surface known as mold, has been formed by decayed 
vegetable matter. 

226. The apparent path of the sun through the heavens 
in the course of a year. At the equinoctial points. 

227. (a) Wight is a small isle south of England, fa- 
mous as the site of Osborne House, the favorite marine re- 
sort of Queen Victoria. 

(b) Scilly Islands lie off Lauds End, England. 

(c) Anglesea is an island and county of England lying 
north of Wales in the Irish Sea. 

228. Extensive caverns are supposed to exist beneath 
the surface of the earth, in which huge masses of rock hang 
suspended overhead, and projecting masses shelve from 
the sides, and it is thought that when a portion of these 
detach and fall, the shock is so great as to produce a trem- 
bling or quaking of the crust in that region. This theory 
is not generally received by scientific men. 

229. On the tropic of Capricorn, 23^ degrees south. 

230. It is derived from the Latin, sol, meaning the sun, 
and stiti, to cause to stand, and the word means " the sun 
stands." That is, the solstice is the point in the ecliptic at 
which the sun is farthest from the equator, north or south, 
and where it seems to stand a short time, and then gradually 
return to the equator. 



GEOGRAPHY. 143 

231. Icebergs are detached masses from glaciers which 
have extended into the sea and become undermined by the 
warmer waters, and then carried by the currents out into 
the ocean. As glaciers can be formed only on land, ice- 
bergs drifting from a region indicate the presence of land 
at the place from which tliey come. 

232. Lines passing through places having the same 
mean summer temperature. 

233. (a) The most eastern of the Windward Islands. 
(b) To Great Britain. 

234. (1) The action of streams ; 

(2) The agency of man ; 

(3) The force of winds ; 

(4) The moisture of the atmosphere ; 

(5) The action of Ocean waves. 

235. Boston, Massachusetts; population 362,639, in 
1880. 

236. Germans, Slavonians, and Magyars. 

237. About 16,000 feet high. 

238. The form of the coast ; river estuaries ; and the 
shape of gulfs and bays along the continents. 

239. In the Bay of Fundy where the tide-wave is forced 
up a narrow gulf with high shelving shores, the tides rise 
to the height of 75 feet. 

240. The length of day at any place will be such a 
part of 24 hours, as the part of its parallel in light is of 
the part in shadow. (See answer 49 ) 

241. (a) Calcareous, or those containing lime. 

(b) Silicious, or those containing silicon. 

(c) Sulphurous, containing sulphuretted hydrogen. 

(d) Chalybeate, containing iron. 

(e) Acidulous, containing carbonic acid gas. 

(f) Petroleum, containrng rock or coal-oil. 

(g) Bituminous, or those from which pitch issues, 
(h) Brines, or those containing common salt. 



144 GEOGRAPHY. 

242. England, Germany, and France. 

243. For places near the level of the sea the limit of 
snow-fall may be said to be southern California, Arizona, 
and New Mexico; northern Mexico, southern Texas, 
Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. In the old 
world, northern Africa, and Arabia, central Persia, north- 
ern India, and central China. 

The line corresponds to the 30th parallel, with more or 
less variation in different regions. 

244. All animal life is dependent, either directly or 
indirectly, upon plant growth for nourishment. Plants 
take up the elements from the earth, air, and water, and 
convert them into food suitable for animals. Animals in 
turn supply plants with carbon which sustains the growth 
of their woody parts. 

The carbon is supplied from carbonic acid gas thrown 
out by animals in breathing. This being absorbed by the 
leaves of plants, its carbon is retained to form their stems 
and branches, and the oxygen composing it is returned to 
the air to supply the wants of animals. 

245. That branch of natural science which treats of the 
phenomena of the atmosphere as regards weather and 
climate. 

246. (a) Niagara between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. 

(b) The Bridal Veil in California. 

(c) Victoria in the Zambese River in Africa. 

(d) Staubbach in Switzerland. 

247. The Caspian Sea has no outlet, and the evapora- 
tion from its surface carries away only fresh water, leaving 
the saline matter washed into its basin by the rivers, thus 
annually increasing the degree of its saltness. 

The rivers received into the Black Sea are fresh water 
streams, and a strong current flows from it through the 
Bosphorus, Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles into the 
Mediterranean Sea. 



aEOGRAPHY. 145 

248. The latitude, the direction of the prevailing winds, 
the elevation above the sea level, the extent of forest 
growth, and proximity to the sea. 

249. The legislative, the executive, and the judicial. 

250. The north magnetic pole is at Boothia Felix in 
the Arctic Archipelago, North America. It was located 
by Captain James Ross. The south magnetic pole has not 
been definitely located, but is supposed to be diametrically 
opposite the north magnetic pole. 

251. It is due to the rotation of the earth on its axis, 
while the matter composing it was yet in a semi-fluid state. 

Remark: — Take a strip of sheet tin about 15 inches 
long and 1 inch wide, and form a band from it by uniting 
the ends with solder. Then punch two holes diametrically 
opposite each other in this band or hoop, and insert a small 
rod as an axis about which the hoop may turn. Then 
holding the rod in one hand, and twirling the hoop with 
the other, it will be seen to flatten more and more at the 
poles, and to increase its equatorial diameter, so to speak, 
with the increased velocity about its axis. This illustrates 
the law under which the earth took the form of an oblate 
spheroid. 

252. (a) It means " nearly inclosed by land," "lying 
between," or "intermediate," i. e., Medi-terranean. 

(b) Its length from east to west is about 2,320 miles. 

253. It is in the southern part of Syria, and bounded 
north by the Lebanon Mountains, east by the valley of the 
Jordan, south by the desert of Sinai, and west by the Medi- 
terranean Sea. It is about 190 miles long by an average 
breadth of 75 miles. Within its limits are the Dead Sea, 
and Lake Tiberias. The surface is rough and mountain- 
ous ; Mt. Hermou in the Lebanon chain being 9,381 feet in 
altitude. The government is under Turkish rule, and the 
inhabitants are Jews, Mohammedans, Turks, Syrians, and 
Christians. 



146 GEOGRAPHY. 

Palestine was anciently the land of Canaan, and here 
was the flourishing kingdom of David and his son Solomon. 

254. (1) Alexandrina • Victoria, Queen of Great 
Britain and Ireland, and Empress of India; 

(2) Alexander III. , Czar of Russia ; 

(3) Alfonso XII., King of Spain ; 

(4) Franz Joseph I. , Emperor of Austria ; 

(5) William I., Emperor of Germany and King ot 
Prussia. 

255. It is a submarine plateau extending across the 
Atlantic from Newfoundland to Ireland. The water along 
its course is comparatively shallow, and the indications are 
that the Atlantic was at one period divided in that region. 
It was first pointed out by Captain Maury of the United 
States Navy, and named by him the Telegraphic Plateau. 
Along its course the first trans-Atlantic cable was success- 
fully laid, July 28, 1867. 

256. It is in the Irish Sea. 

257. The upper current flows from the Atlantic into 
the Mediterranean. 

There is an under current flowing the opposite way. 

258. It is a -huge granite bowlder at the water's edge, 
at the town of Plymouth, Massachusetts, on which it is 
said the crew of the Mayjioiver lauded, in December, 1620. 

259. Along the coast of Mississippi and Alabama, and 
on the southeastern coast of California, at which places it is 
65 inches. 

260. Lake Chautauqua. 

261. At Rome, Paris, and Naples. 

262. One is now in Central Park, New York City, 
having been brought from Alexandria, Egypt, to New 
York, in 1881, the expenses being defrayed by William 
H. Vanderbilt. Another obelisk known as "Cleopatra's 
Needle " stands on the Thames Embankment, London, En- 
gland. 



GEOGRAPHY. 147 

263. (a) Ireland, (b) England, and (c) The United 
States. 

264. By the union of oxygen and hydrogen gases, 
which surrounded the earth as highly heated bodies, until 
the cooling of the crust, when the vapors became condensed 
and fell as water. 

265. Massachusetts. 

266. They are formed by the occurrence of powerful 
whirwinds over the oceanic waters. The rapid rotary 
motion of the wind dashes the clouds down near the sur- 
face, and around the center of motion there forms a funuel- 
shaped mass which lowers to the water, when the spray 
and cloud unite, and form what is termed a water-spout. 
To the observer at sea, water-spouts present a formidable 
appearance, but the stories of their destructive effects are 
more fable than truth. 

267. The poiver in which paramount authority should 
be vested, as regards the government of Afghanistan. 

268. For the celebrated "Leaning Tower," ranked as 
one of the seven wonders of the world. It is 179 feet high, 
50 feet in diameter, and leans from a perpendicular about 
13 feet. 330 spiral steps reach the summit, and 7 large 
bells are so balanced at the top, as to counteract the force 
of gravity of the leaning column. 

269. In England, as early as 1814. George Stevenson 
was the inventor. The "steam wagon" invented by him 
could make only about 6 miles an hour, while at the 
present day, steam locomotives have attained a speed of 
over 75 miles an hour. 

270. 23^ degress from a perpendicidar to the plane of 
the earth's orbit ; or, 66^ degrees to the plane of the earth's 
orbit. 

271. (a) Probably Suakim on the Red Sea. 

Cairo in Egypt is one of the hottest cities on the globe, 
(b) St. Petersburg is the coldest city. 



148 GEOGRAPHY. 

A small trading post named Turnchansk in Siberia is 
probably the coldest town on the globe. 

272. Beds of saline matter at the bottom of the ocean, 
and various salts carried into the seas by rivers, together 
with the constant evaporation from the surface. 

273. Most of the surfa,ce lies below the level of the 
sea, the country being protected by dykes. 

The extensive canal system of the country is another no- 
ticeable feature, since most all the canals lie above the gen- 
eral level of the regions through which they are built. 

274. It is in Chautau(|ua County in the western ex- 
tremity of New York. 

It is noted as a place of resort during the months of July 
and August. Many literary societies and other bodies hold 
annual conventions there within the period mentioned. 

It is also celebrated as being the highest lake navigated 
by steam in the world. 

275. (a) They modify the summer's heat and the win- 
ter's cold. 

(b) It is shown by the abundant crops of apples, grapes, 
and other fruits grown in their vicinity annually, while 
further south where their effect is not felt, these crops fre- 
quently are killed by the severe freezing late in winter, 
and in the early spring. 

276. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. 
That portion of Minnesota lying east of the Mississippi 
was a part of the Northwest Territory. 

277. It is of the greatest commercial advantage in 
forming safe harbors for sailing vessels. It also modifies 
the climate. 

278. Salt lakes generally receive the drainage of a 
scope of country of more or less extent, but they have no 
visible outlets. The waters drained into their basins carry 
with them a per cent, of mineral salts, and as these are not 
removed by the evaporjition wliich takes place from the 



GEOGRAPHY. 149 

surface, the waters of the lakes yearly become more salty. 

279. Boston, Massachusetts. 

280. The Caucasian. 

281. Mountains exist either as single peaks, or in a 
continuous chain. 

282. On the shores of Great Britain and Ireland. 

283. From the bark of the cork tree in Spain and Por- 
tugal. 

284. It is the change in position of the equinoctial 
points along the ecliptic, the entire circumference being 
passed over in about 26,000 years. 

285. (a) A description of its plant life ; 
(b) A description of its animal life. 

286. From the shells of " pearl oysters" found princi- 
pally along the coast of Ceylon, and the shores bordering 
the Gulf of Persia. 

287. About 52 minutes. 

288. A planet is in its descending node when it is in 
that portion of its orbit, which lies below the plane of the 
ecliptic. It is in its ascending node when it is in that 
part of its orbit which lies above the plane of the ecliptic. 

To illustrate, take an apple or an orange and mark with 
a knife a circle around its center. Call the apple the sun 
and the circumference marked, the ecliptic. Now mark 
another circle oblique to the first one, i. e., with its one half 
lying above the first circle, and its other half lying below 
its plane : call the circle last marked the orbit of the earth. 
Now move the point of a pencil along this circle; when the 
j)encil point is traversing that portion of the earth's orbit, 
so called, which lies above the plane of the so called eclij)- 
tic, it is in the ascending node. When it is traversing that 
portion below the jilaue of the ecliptic, it is in the descend- 
ing node. 

289. The Sahara is about three and one-third times the 
area of the Mediterranean Sea. 



150 GEOGRAPHY. 

Area of Sahara 3,293,000 square miles ; 

Area of Mediterranean less than 1,000,000 square miles. 

290. From the greater diversity of surface in the 
northern hemisphere. 

291. The Hoosic Tunnel intersecting the Hoosic range 
of mountains, in Massachusetts. Its length is nearly five 
miles. 

292. Bounded by the arctic circle on the north, and 
the antarctic circle on the south; by the continents of 
Asia and Australia, and the meridian of South Cape in 
Tasmania, on the west; and by the western shore of America 
and the meridian of Cape Horn, on the east. 

293. The cirrus, or hair-like cloud, formed in the upper 
regions of the atmosphere. 

The cumidus, or heap cloud, formed in the lower regions 
of the atmosphere. 

The stratus, or horizontal-layer cloud, seen in the early 
morning and evening. 

The nimbus, or storm cloud, consisting of heavy, dark 
masses of vapor. 

294. Level, treeless plains extending over most of 
southern Russia east of the Dnieper River, and from the 
Black Sea to the Ural Mountains. 

295. (a) That branch of natural history which treats 
of the classification, structure, and habits of animals. 

(b) That branch of natural history which treats of the 
classification, form, and habits of birds. 

(c) The science that treats of the classification of fishes. 

(d) The science that treats of the classification and 
origin of the races of men. 

296. Russia, the Czar ; Egypt, the Khedive ; Turkey^ 
the Sultan. 

297. Each tribe residing in its allotted district within 
the Indian Territory, is under it own system of govern, 
ment. The form of government of the more civilized 



GEOGRAPHY. 151 

tribes, resembles that of the States. The Cherokee nation, 
which may be taken to illustrate this, since it is the most 
civilized of all the Indian tribes, is governed by a national 
committee and council elected for two years. The Execu- 
tive whose title of office is the "Principal Chief of the 
Cherokee Nation," holds his office for a term of four years. 
Talequah is the capital of the Cherokee country. All 
cases of crime in which a citizen of the United States is 
involved, are tried in the United States courts of the ad- 
joining States of Arkansas and Missouri. The Indians 
cannot trade or sell their lands except to the United States 
through the agents of the government. Matters pertaining 
to the United States are conducted by the Commissioner 
of Indian Affairs, who acts under the instruction of the 
Secretary of the Interior. (See History, 295 and 296. ) 

298. The Mediterranean Sea, and the Gulf of Suez, 
an arm of the Red Sea. Menzaleh Lake is often named 
as the Mediterranean terminus of the canal, but it is built 
through the lake to Port Said on the Mediterranean. 

299. It is a small Island on the south-west coast of 
Ireland. It is noted for Valencia Harbor, the most west- 
ern of Ireland, where there is a telegraph station for four 
Atlantic cables. 

300. (a) The tropics and polar circles. 

(b) Because then the vertical rays of the sun would 
always fall on the equator, and the oblique rays would 
reach to the poles. (See answers 26 and 102.) 

301. Because they come from the arctic and sub-arctic 
regions where there are large areas of ice and snow. 

302. Some clouds are said to be a mile in thickness and 
to have as much as twenty square miles of surface. Others 
again contain but a few feet of surface. 

303. Hazy, dry vapors which give the atmosphere a 
dull, opaque appearance. 



152 GEOGRAPHY. 

304. Because then the heat has radiated from objects 
until their temperature is lower than the air which comes 
in contact with their surfaces. 

305. (1) The electrical condition of the atmosphere; 

(2) The direction and force ofthe wind ; 

(3) The temperature of the air. 

306. Thick foliage prevents rapid radiation of heat 
from objects beneath it, and reflects back to them the heat 
which is evolved, thus keeping the temperature of the air 
above the dew point, 

307. Visible 102 days ; invisible 98 days, or from 2d of 
November till the 8th of February. 

308. (a) Those who live on opposite sides of the 
equator, and on opposite meridians ; or those who are 
diametrically opposite each other, their feet pointing to- 
gether. 

(b) Those who live on the same parallel, but on oppo- 
site meridians. Their times of day and night are opposite. 

(c) Those who live in opposite latitude, but the same 
degree from the equator, and who have the same meridian. 

309. In the first point of cancer. 

310. Zenith and nadir. 

311. The State of Connecticut. 

312. It is a sheet of water 12 miles long and 4 miles 
wide, formed by the expansion of the Hudson River, about 
27 miles north of New York City. 

Tarrytown on its bank is famous i.s the place of capture 
of Major Andre in the War of the Revolution. 

313. In the State of Vermont. 

It is one of the highest peaks of the Green Mountains. 

314. New Hampshire. 

315. On December 21st. (See answer 6.) 

316. At the International date line. (See answer 129.) 

317. By the force of gravity acting upon the mass com- 
posing the earth while it was in a fluid or semi-fluid state. 



GEOGRAPHY. 153 

" That very law that molds a tear 

And bids it trickle from its source ; 
That law preserves the earth a sphere, 
And guides the planets in their course." 

318. Louisiana, Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, 
Oi'egou, Nebraska, parts of Colorado and Minnesota, In- 
dian Territory, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Dakota, 
and most of Wyoming. 

Washington, Oregon, and Idaho were included in the 
"Louisiana Purchase" as defined and bounded in the 
Florida Treaty with Spain in 1819. ( See answer to ques- 
tion 211 in United States History.) 

319. As to condition : stratified and uustratified. 
As to origin : aqueous, igneous, and metamorphic. 

320. Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. 

321. The inhabitants of the region were denominated 
barbarians, when the country was first discovered by the 
civilized nations of southern Europe. After colonies had 
been planted there, the section was called the Barbary 
States, in contradistinction to the older States of North 
Africa. 

322. N, north ; N b E, north by east ; NNE, north 
north-east ; NE b N, north-east by north ; NE, north- 
east; ENE b E, east north-east by east. 

323. Rock-salt is mined principally in Virginia. 

The most celebrated salt-wells are those of Geddes, Syra- 
cuse, and Salina, in the State of New York. The wells 
are owned by the State, and it receives therefrom one cent 
royalty on every bushel of salt mined. 

324. From fifteen to twenty-four miles. 

325. It is 363 miles long, and has 87 locks along its 
course. 

326. It lies south of the eastern portion of Australia, 
and is separated from that continent l)y Bass Strait. To it 
Great Britain until the year 1853, sent most of her con- 



154 GEOGRAPHY. 

victs. This gave it the name, "English Sil)eria." The 
name Tasmania, comes from the discoverer of the island, 
Jaunsen Tasman. The capital is Hobart Town. 

327. The people of Holland. 

328. To the absence of moisture in the intensely hot 
winds that blow over its surface. 

329. The people of the Chinese Empire. 

330. B is east of A. 

Their difference of time being 1 hr. 50 min. , their differ- 
ence of longitude must be 27^ degrees. 

331. Minorca, Majorca, and Ivaza. 

332. The word means "southern," or "lying to the 
south." So named from the position of the continent, it 
being the southern grand division of the globe. 

333. In a geographical sense, it is a narrow tract of 
land over which goods of commerce are carried from one 
body of navigable water to another. 

The Isthmus of Panama with its railroad from the Pa- 
cific to the Atlantic, is a noted portage. 

334. Lake Pepin is in Wisconsin. It is an expansion 
of the Mississippi. 

Lake Borgne is in the southeastern portion of Missis- 
sippi. 

Lake Constance is near the source of the Rhine River, 
on the boundary between Switzerland and Germany. 

Lake St. Clair lies between Lake Huron and Lake 
Erie. 

Lake Tulare is in central California, and is drained by 
the San Joaquin River. 

Lake Peoria is in Illinois ; it is an expansion of the Illi- 
nois River. 

335. In summer, December being the warm month in 
that zone. The seasons are opposite those of the north 
temperate zone. 

336. The word means ' ' land of men with large feet.'' 



GEOGRAPHY. 155 

The name originated with Magellan, who discovered 
the region, and he so named it from the enormous size of 
the feet of the natives. The size was, in appearance, greatly 
augmented by a kind of shoe worn by the natives. 

337. A body of water enclosed within a coral island. 

338. It is more or less briny. 

339. It is not a complete circle. 

According to authority, the diameter of the equator 
' ' which pierces the meridian 14 degrees east of Greenwich 
is two miles longer than the one at right angles to it." 

340. The St. Mary's ship-canal. 

341. It is about a mile in length, and circumvents the 
water-fall in St. Mary's Strait. 

342. They lie in the middle of the Pacific, about 20 
degrees north of the equator. 

The capital is Honolulu, on the island of Oahu. It is a 
constitutional monarchy. King Kalakaua is (1885) the 
present ruler. 

343. The orbit of the earth is an ellipse, and the earth 
is in perihelion in December, and in aphelion in June. 

344. The two j)oints marking the intersection of the 
celestial equator with the ecliptic. (See answer 288.) 

345. The two points in the ecliptic which mark the 
sun's greatest distance from the equator, north and south. 
They are marked on the terrestrial globe by the tropics of 
Capricorn and cancer. 

346. Hammerfest. 

347. Their great length, and the volume of water dis- 
charged through their channels. They all have their origin 
in the central portion of the continent. 

348. That of Lisbon in 1755, and that of Iquique in 
1868. At the latter date all the Pacific coast of South 
America was greatly agitated. 

349. The East Indies, and the West Indies. 



156 GEOGRAPHY. 

350. Because they pass through a stratum of atmos- 
phere thinner than that traversed by the oblique rays, and 
they are spread over a less area of surface. 

351. An irregular ring with the center at the north 
pole. 

Each continental area is more or less triangular in form, 
except Australia, which approaches a quadrilateral. 

352. Lowlands and highlands ; or plains and moun- 
tains. 

353. (a) Coral islands are found only in tropical regions, 
(b) Because the coral insect cannot live and propagate 

itself in water of a temperature much below 68 degrees 
Fahr. 

354. In the Central Alps of Europe. 

The island of Spitzbergen, and the Arctic Archipelago 
are well known glacier regions. 

355. In the temperate zones. Guyot says " in the 
temperate zone, in western Asia, the geographical center 
of the old world. " 

356. By the explosive force of steam generated in the 
lower portion of the geyser tube. (See answer 186.) 

357. (a) They are remains originally animal or vegeta 
ble, but which by being buried in moist earth, have be- 
come, through chemical and mechanical changes, mineral 
in composition, but still retain the exact outline of the 
original animal or plant. 

(b) They help us to determine the various stages of de- 
velopment of the earth's crust, and enable us to tell the 
kinds of animals and plants that flourished in each forma- 
tive period of the crust. 

358. On the western continent: St. Johns, Quebec, 
Halifax, Boston, New York, Charleston, Rio Janeiro, and 
Beunos Ayres. 

On the eastern : Liverpool, Amsterdam, Havre, and 
Bordeaux. 



GEOGRAPHY. 157 

359. In the South Atlantic, over 1,200 miles from the 
nearest point on the coast of Africa. This island is noted 
as the place of banishment and death of Napoleon I. Here 
the celebrated "Emperor of the French," after his defeat 
at Waterloo, resided under British guardianship until his 
death in 1821. 

360. It is bounded on all sides by the State of Mary- 
land, except on the southwest, where the Potomac River 
forms a portion of the boundary. 

Its area is 60 square miles. 

In 1878 Congress passed an act putting the control of 
the District under a board of three Commissioners, two of 
whom to be appointed by the President and Senate for 
three years, and the third to be an officer from the Corps 
of Engineers of the Army, selected by the President. All 
municipal officers of the District are appointed by this 
Board. 

361. It is a small village 12 miles from Brussels in 
Belgium. 

It is celebrated as the site of the great battle fought in 
1815 between the army of England and her allies, com- 
manded by Wellington, and the French under Napoleon 
I. (See answer 359.) 

362. It is the most magnificent palace in Europe, ad- 
joins St. Peter's at Rome, and is the actual residence of the 
Pope. Its great library, and numerous paintings, pieces 
of statuary, rare vases, and other works of art, make it the 
most noted building in the world. 

363. On the island of StafTa, one of the Hebrides, on 
the coast of Scotland. 

364. New York on Manhattan Island, 1,206,299 ; Phila- 
delphia, Pennsylvania, 847,170; Brooklyn, on Long Island 
5(i6,663; Chicago, Illinois, 503,185. 

365. The Kur, Arax, Atrek, and Emba which flow 
into the Caspian Sea; The Syr and the Amoo, into the 



158 GEOGRAPHY. 

Aral Sea; The Hi, into Lake Balkash; The Helmund, into 
Lake Hamoou ; The Jordan, into the Dead Sea ; and many 
other small rivers empty into inland seas and lakes. 

366. The chief cause is the rotation of the earth on its 
axis. The winds, and the polar currents, are secondary 
causes. 

367. The waters of the lakes become great reservoirs 
of heat during the summer, and in autumn and winter 
this is given off, and the temperature of the air iu the 
vicinity of the lakes is kept above that at a distance from 
them. 

368. Although both regions are in the same latitude, 
the shores of Alaska are raucli warmer than those of 
Greenland. This is due to the influence of the oceanic 
currents flowing along their coasts. The Japan Current 
which washes the coast of southern Alaska is a warm 
stream, while Greenland is washed by a cold Arctic Cur- 
rent, bearing numerous icebergs along its course. 

369. Subterranean streams which rise near enough the 
surface to influence vegetation ; at places the water issues 
forth from springs, thus sustaining both vegetable and 
animal life. 

370. The chief vegetation is the palm tree. Coarse 
grasses furnish a scant pasturage for the camel and other 
quadrupeds. In parts where the land is irrigated, various 
kinds of fruits and plants grow in abundance. 

371. In 1840, on the 89th parallel, directly south of 
Clarksburg, W. Va. 

In 1850, on the 39th parallel, southeast of Parkersburg, 
W. Va. 

In 1860, on the 39th parallel, north of Portsmouth, Ohio. 

In 1870, ^ of a degree north of the 39th parallel, near 
Georgetown, O. 

In 1880, on the 39th parallel, near Covington, Ky. 

Thus " the march of Empire westward takes its course." 



GEOGRAPHY. I59 

372. The State of Minnesota. 

373. Their j)lanes intersect each other at an angle of 
23^ degrees. 

374. From the verdure of the ishind; studding the 
waters of the ocean like an emerald. 

375. At the occurrence of the vernal and the autumnal 
equinoxes. 

376. It is one degree of longitude, measured on the 
equator. Its value is 69.16 statute miles. 

377. It is a tract of country which was purchased from 
Mexico by the United States in 1853. It is bounded north 
by the Gila River, east by the Rio Grande, south by Mexico, 
and west by the Rio Colorado. The purchase was negoti- 
ated by Senator Gadsden, at a cost of #10,000,000. 

378. Quicksilver principally at New Almaden, Cal- 
ifornia. 

Nickel chiefly in Pennsylvania, where the government 
obtains nickel to coin cents from. Kentucky is also noted 
for mines of nickel. 

Mica is found in the Appalachian and the Rocky Moun- 
tain States. The deposits are rich in .some of the New 
England States. 

379. The Sahara and the region bordering the Red 
Sea, the Pacific shore of Mexico, the coast of Peru, the 
interior plateaus of Asia, and the Great Interior Plateau 
of the United States. 

380. Straits, sounds, channels, and passages. 

381. Belgium. The ratio is about 450 persons to the 
square mile. 

382. A place of anchorage for ships some distance from 
the shore. As Hampton Roads off the coast of Virginia. 

383. It is celebrated for the great naval engagement 
between the Merrimac and the Monitor, March 9, 1862. 
This was the first battle in the world between iron ships. 



160 GEOGRAPHY. 

384. There are quarries of fine marble in California, 
and the adjoining States, and quarries of red marble in 
Tennessee. The most celebrated quarries are those of the 
New England States, particularly the Rutland, Vermont, 
quarries. 

385. The Pacific States and Territories, and the New 
England States are noted for granite. Quincy, Massachu- 
setts, is famous for granite. 

386. Rio Janerio. 
About 23 degrees. 

387. It is a light raft formed by placing a platform on 
inflated bags made from skins of animals, and is used in 
loading and unloading vessels which cannot approach the 
shore on account of breakers. 

388. Lake Reys in Peru, according to some authorities, 
from which flows the Ucayale River, considered the main 
branch of the Amazon. 

Other authority gives the source of the Amazon in 
western Peru, latitude 10 degrees south, and within 60 
miles of the Pacific coast. 

389. On the coast of Chili, between the parallels of 23 
and 27 degrees south. 

390. They are extensive submarine plateaus, over which 
the water is comparatively shallow, lying to the south and 
east of Newfoundland. One of these, the Great Bank, is 
over 600 miles long by 200 miles wide. 

391. For the great siege laid there by the English and 
French armies against the Russians in what is known as 
the Crimean AVar. 

392. It is the countries and tributary principalties 
under the sovereignty of the Sultan of Turkey. 

393. It is in western Arabia, and is famous as the place 
of birth of Mohammed, the prophet of Islam. It contains 
the famous Mos(juc of El-Haram, which thousands of pil- 
grims visit annually. 



GEOGRAPHY. 161 

394. Lead, silver, and copper mines are worked, and 
there are deposits of gypsum and coal, beds of roofing slate, 
and quarries of marble and limestone. 

395. It is on the Hudson River in the State of New 
York, and is noted as the place of Washington's head- 
quarters in the northern campaign of the Revolution. 

396. It is an expansion of the Jordan River in its upper 
course, and lies in the northern portion of Palestine. It 
is an insignificant body of water, and is celebrated only 
from the Scriptural scenes which transpired on its borders. 
It is sometimes called Lake Tiberias, and' was anciently 
known as the Sea of Gennesaret. 

397. The Middlesex Canal, in 1814. 

398. For its picturesque situation, its delightful climate, 
and its celebrated surroundings as regards historical events. 
Near it towers Vesuvius, and at its base lie the cities of 
Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed in the great eruption 
of that volcano in A. D. 1 9. The public buildings are 
massive and grand, and the Museum contains one of the 
finest collection of works of art, archaeological remains, and 
other objects of interest, found on the continent. 

399. It is an immense pile of buildings in the heart of 
the city of Moscow, the former capital of Russia. It con- 
tains within its bounds, the Cathedral of the Assumption 
of the Virgin, the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael, 
which contains the tombs of the Czars down to the time of 
Peter the Great, the Church of the Annunciation, paved 
with jasper, agate, and cornelians, the Tower of Ivan 
Veliki, and the " Czar Kolokol," the fiimous great bell of 
the world, the weight of which is 432,000 pounds. 

400. Mt. Owen Stanley, over 13,000 feet high. 

401. The Mount Cenis Tunnel connecting the railways 
of France and Italy. It is on the direct line running 
from Paris to Turin, and is nearly eight miles long. 



162 GEOGRAPHY. 

402. The Vermillion Sea is a name frequently applied 
to the Gulf of California. 

403. It is a famous summer resort on South Bass Island 
in Lake Erie, a few miles from the city of Sandusky. 
The harbor received the name from its being the place 
where Commodore Perry's fleet " put in," at the time of 
the battle of Lake Erie. 

404. Humboldt, Agassiz, and Maury. 

405. New Orleans, ' ' Crescent City " ; Brooklyn, ' ' City 
of Churches"; Washington, "City of Magnificent Dis- 
tances"; New Haven, "City of Elms"; Philadelphia, 
"City of Brotherly Love". 

406. The city of Athens in Greece. 

407. The "City of Spindles" is Lowell, Massachusetts. 
The ' * City of Notions " is Boston, Massachusetts. . 

408. Limerick, Ireland. 

409. The Geyser Springs of California, Hot Springs in 
Arkansas, The Yellowstone National Park, Estes Park 
and Middle Park in Colorado, and the Yosemite Valley 
in California. 

410. Coney Island, Long Branch, Niagara Falls, Lake 
of the Thousand Isles, Newport on the island of Rhode 
Island ; The White Sulphur Springs, Virginia ; The Berk, 
shire Hills, White Mountains, and the Highlands of the 
Hudson. 

411. Lieut. Lockwood reached 83 degrees and 24 min- 
utes north latitude, or within 458 miles of the north pole. 

412. Charleston became the capital. 

413. It is the region of calms in the Atlantic Ocean, 
known as the "Calms of Cancer". 

The name is said to come from the fact that vessels in 
early days bound from New England to the West Indies, 
with a deck load of horses, were often delayed in the region 
of the Calms of Cancer, when the animals perishing for 
want of water were thrown overboard. 



GEOGRAPHY. 163 

414. ** It is that department of physical geography 
which treats of the varieties of the human race, and their 
distribution. " 

415. The Natural Bridge in Rockbridge County, 

416. The Empire of Brazil. The Republic of France. 



QUESTIONS 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. What are the principal parts of a verb? Why so 
called ? 

2. What is meant by government and agreement of words 
in a sentence ? 

3. What parts of speech are capable of inflection? 

4. What is the inflection of nouns and pronouns called ? 

5. What is the inflection of verbs called ? 

6. What is the inflection of adjectives and adverbs 
called ? 

7. Define grammar as a science. 

8. Define grammar as an art. 

9. Can a noun in the first or second person ever be 
used as subject ? 

10. How are words inflected ? 

11. What is the base of inflection of a word ? 

12. What is the base of inflection of verbs? Of nouns? 
Of adjectives? 

13. What is meant by the stem, root, theme, and crude 
form of a word ? 

14. What is English grammar? 

15. What is the basis of the English language? 

16. What is the office of authors on English grammar ? 

17. What is the complement of a verb ? 

18. Define sentence, clause, and phrase. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

19. Give the auxiliary verbs, and the number of tenses 
of each. 

20. What properties have verbs ? 

21. How is the passive voice of verbs formed ? 

22. State the difference between a personal and a rela- 
tive pronoun. 

23. What are the principal elements of a sentence ? 

24. How many elements may a sentence have ? 

25. With reference to their use or p(jsition in sentences, 
how are clauses classified ? 

26. What are the accidents of nouns and pronouns ? 

27. Can a preposition and its object ever become the 
predicate of a sentence ? 

28. What is a substantive ? 

29. What is inflection ? 

30. Why are nouns and pronouns inflected ? 

31. How many cases have nouns and pronouns? 

32. Name and define the interrogative pronouns. 

33. What are indefinite })ronouns? 

34. What is the diflerence in the use of ivhich and what 
when used adjectively ? 

35. What is the preterit tense? Thepluperfectten.se? 

36. Name the simple relative pronouns and state the 
oflSce of each. 

37. What is language? 

38. Define defective, and redundant verbs. 

39. What are the co5rdinate forms of conjugation ? 

40. What is a reflexive verb? An impersonal verb? 

41. Into how many classes are prepositions divided ? 

42. What may be predicated of a subject ? 

43. What is analysis ? 

44. What is synthesis ? 

45. What is a paradigm ? 

46. What is the new conjugation? 
47 * What is the old conjugation ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 167 

48. To which conjugation do the new verbs coming in- 
to the English language belong? 

49. What is a factitive predicate ? Give example. 

50. How are adjectives classified as to use ? Give exam- 
ple. 

51. How are sentences classified as to form ? 

52. How are sentences classified as to use? 

53. What is meant by the genitive case? 

54. What is the dative case of a noun or pronoun ? 

55. Name the classes of adverbs. 

56. How many participles are there ? 

57. What number is the verb when used with the pro- 
noun ''you" as subject? 

58. What are responsives ? 

59. What parts of speech are used as connectives ? 

60. What words are used to bind sentences together ? 

61. Name the relative adjectives. 

62. How do you determine what part of speech a 
word is? 

63. What is enallage as used in grammar? 

64. How are letters, marks, signs, and figures made 
plural ? 

65. What is it to make a verb ? 

66. What is the distinction in use between shall and will ? 

67. Define case. Name the different cases in English 
grammar. 

68. What is a word ? A letter? A syllable ? 

69. When pronouns of different persons are used how 
should they be arranged ? 

70. By what parts of speech are adjective clauses 
introduced ? 

71. By what parts of speech are adverbial clauses 
introduced ? 

72. What are diminutive nouns? How are, they 
formed ? 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

73. What is the difFereuce between analysis and parsing? 

74. What is the fundamental difference between au 
adjective and an adverbial modifier? 

75. State what modes of the verb are used in principal, 
what in subordinate, and what in abridged propositions. 

76. What is a figure of speech ? A figure of syntax ? 

77. Name the different methods of distinguishing the 
masculine and the feminine genders. 

78. Why is the Anglo-Saxon said to be the basis of the 
English language ? 

79. What is universal grammar ? 

80. In grammar, does gender mean sex ? 

81. How are nouns classified as to gender? 

82. What may the possessive indicate ? 

83. Why do we add self or selves to the simple personal 
pronouns ? 

84. What is a dialect ? 

85. Name some dialects of English. 

86. From what languages is the English chiefly de- 
rived ? 

87. What are some of the special uses of the pronoun 
"it"? 

88. Give the rules governing the uses of a and an. 

89. Why do we say an hour, a university, a ewe, many 
a one ? 

90. What is a verb ? Whence the name ? 

91. What is a verb-phrase? Illustrate your answer. 

92. How is the progressive form of verbs made ? 

93. How is the emphatic form of verbs made ? 

94. Why are infinitives so called ? 

95. Have verbs a subjunctive mode? 

96. What forms of the verb are called composite ? 

97. What parts of speech are never modified ? 

98. Define a period in grammar. 

99. What is the person and number of phrases and 
clauses? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 169 

100. What does the expression of a thought involve ? 

101. How is a verb in the active voice changed into 
the passive ? 

102. Name three objects or advantages in the use of 
the passive voice, and illustrate with examples. 

103. What is the syntax of a word ? 

10-1. What verbs may be resolved into a copula and 
predicate. 

105. What are the chief points of difference between 
nouns and pronouns? 

106. What is the difference between pleonasm and ex- 
pansion ? 

107. What is the difference between ellipsis and 
abridgement ? 

108. Can a noun be used as predicate in any case other 
than the nominative? 

109. How does " If I rms" differ from " If I were " ? 

110. When should a common noun begin with a capital 
letter ? 

111. What is a finite verb? 

112. Define these terms as used in grammar : epigram, 
sincope, and oblique. 

113. What determines the time expressed by a par- 
ticiple ? 

114. What are categorical propositions? 

115. Which modes are used interrogatively ? 

116. What is the difference between a predicate adjec- 
tive and an attributive adjective ? 

117. How do you distinguish between a verb and a 
participle having the same form ? 

118. Name the absolute and the relative tenses. 

119. From what sources arise errors in language? 

120. What are epicene nouns ? 

121. What is scanning? To what division of grammar 
does it belong ? 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

122. Define hyperbaton, allegory, and hyperbole. 

123. Define a verse, paragraph, and stanza. 

124. VVhat is a foot in poetry ? 

125. Name the principal kinds of feet used in poetry. 

126. Which expression is proper, " the two first", or 'Hhe 
first two " ? 

127. State when this, tlmt, these, and those should be 
used. 

128. What would be a logical classification of nouns^ 
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs ? 

129. State the contrast between the number-forms of 
nouns and of verbs. 

130. Name and give example of the principal punctua- 
tion marks. 

131. What are infinitives and participles? 

132. Which of the dependent clauses is the simplest in 
construction ? 

133. What is the object of the preposition "to" in the 
sentence "I went up to where it lay"? 

134. Parse "when" in this sentence: " We found the 
date when Rome was founded." 

135. What is the grammatical subject of a sentence ? 

136. What is the logical subject of a sentence? 

137. How many tense-forms have verbs? 

138. Illustrate the formation of the tenses of the verb 
give in the indicative mode, active. 

139. Of what is the adjective clause the equivalent? 

140. By what are co-ordinate clauses joined together? 

141. What are co-ordinate clauses ? 

142. What are cognate objects? 

143. What is meant by vernacular language ? 



ANS^A/'ERS 



QUESTIONS ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. The present indicative, the past indicative, and the 
perfect participle. 

These are called the principal parts of a verb 
because they form the basis of verbal inflection. No 
verb can be conjugated without them. 

2. By government is meant the power one word has 
over another to change its form. 

By agreement is meant the change of form a word 
undergoes to indicate its relation to the governing word. 

In the sentence, "J. man readi^" the subject being 
singular, the verb is compelled to assume the singular 
form to mark its agreement with its subject, " man ". 
Again, in the sentence, " The men read," the plural sub- 
ject, "men", compels the verb to assume the plural form 
"read". 

3. The noun, pronoun, adjective, vei'b, and adverb. 

4 The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called 
declension. 

5. The inflection of verbs is called cmifugation. 

6. The inflection of adjectives and adverbs is called 
comparison. 

7. Grammar, as a science, embraces knowledge of the 
principles and usages of language. 

8. "Grammar, as an art, is tlie power of reading, writ- 
ing, and speaking correctly." 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. It can iKJt. The ^^uhject iu t\m first or second person 
must always be a pronoun. 

10. By addiug something on at the end ; as, tall, taller. 
By changes made in tliem ; as, man, men. 

By both adding something and altering the sound of 
the original word; as, kneel, kneelet?, or knelt; brother, 
brothers, or brethren. 

By substituting wholly different words; as, I, my, we, 
and us. 

W. It is usually the simplest and briefest form of the 
word. It is the starting point from which the derived 
forms are made. 

12. Of verbs it is the present infinitive ; of nouns, the 
nominative singular ; of adjectives, the positive degree. 

13. They are terms each of which means the same as 
"base of inflection;" the starting point from which a word 
is inflected. 

The term " root " is applied to verbs only. 

1 4. English grammar is a description of the principles 
of the English language as used by good speakers and 
writers of the present day. 

15. The Anglo-Saxon. (See 78.) 

16. To report the facts of good language — as it is used 
in the present day — in an orderly form, so that they may 
be easily referred to, or learned by any one who has occa- 
sion to do so. 

17. The complement of a verb is its " completing part," 
namely : a word added to the verb to complete the asser- 
tion or predication made by it. As, " I feel tired." "The 
door stands open. " 

18. A sentence is a thought expressed in words. 
A clause is a dependent sentence. 

"A phrase is an assemblage of words forming a single 
expression, but not making complete sense." 

19. The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, 
must. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 173 

They have two tense forms, premnt and past, with the ex- 
ception of must which is used in the present only. 

20. Voice, mode, tense, person, and number. 

21 It is formed by ])refixing some form of the verb to 
he to the perfect participle, or third root, of a transitive 
verb. 

22. A personal pi'onoun always stands for the same 
grammatical person. 

A relative pronoun may stand for any grammatical per- 
son. 

A personal pronoun may be the subject of an independ- 
ent clause ; a relative pronoun cannot be so used. 

A personal pronoun is never used conjunctively; a rela- 
tive pronoun is always so used. 

23. The principal elements of a sentence are those nec- 
essary in its construction. They are the subject and the 
predicate. 

24. A sentence may contain five distinct elements ; 
two principal and three subordinate. The subordinate ele- 
ments are adjective, objective, and adverbial in use. Each of 
these may hefrsl, second, or third class in form. 

25. As subject, predicate, relative, appositive, inter- 
rogative, objective, and adverbial clauses. 

26. Number, gender, person, and case are called the 
accidents, or accidental properties of nouns and pronouns. 

27. Yes, since the phrase is equivalent to an adjective 
predicate. As "George is without a penny" =:" George is 
penniless. " 

28. A substantive is a noun. 

29. Inflection is the change of form of a word, depend- 
ing on differences of its meaning and use. 

30. To show differences of case and of number, 

31. Three: nominative, possessive, and objective. 
The objective case of nouns is always the same form as 

the nominative. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The nominative case, by address, is sometimes called the 
vocative case. Again, the nominative independent is called 
the absolute case. 

32. The interrogative pronouns are who, which,a.nd what. 
Their office is to ask a question, or to make an interrog- 
ative sentence. 

Who is used of persons ; 

Which is used both of persons and things ; 

Wliat is used of everything, whether living creatures, or 
inanimate things. 

WhetJier was formerly an interrogative. As, in the 
sentence, " Whether is greater, the gift or the altar ?" 

33. They are words that occupy a position interme- 
diate between real pronouns on the one hand, and nouns 
and pronouns on the other. Such as the words, each, 
either, both, many, all, nojie, anyone, something. Noble But- 
ler calls ' ' who " an indefinite pronoun in the sentence, ' ' I 
know who built the house." 

34. Which differs from what in being selective. 

35. (a) Preterit is a Latin word for "gone by, past," 
hence the preterit tense is the jMst tense. 

(b) The pluperfect tense is what some authors call the 
past perfect tense. 

36. Who, ivhich, what, and tliat. 
Who, used to represent persons. 
Which, and what, to represent things. 
Tliat, to represent both persons and things. 

Harvey and others call " as" a relative after the words 
siich, many, and same. And, Noble Butler says, if "as" is 
a relative according to the above statement, ^' than" is a 
relative after words in the comparative degree. " This is 
more lead tJmn I can carry." Here " tJian" refers to 
" lead," and is the object of " carry." 

37. Language is any method of communicating thought 
or feeling. In the study of grammar it is the method of 
expressing thought by means of printed or oral speech. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 175 

38. (a) Defective verbs are those which want some of 
the principal parts. They are ought, beware, tvould, quoth 
or quod, wit, ivis, root. 

(b) Redundant verbs are those which have more than 
one form for their past tense or perfect participle. 

39. The co-ordinate forms of conjugation are the pro- 
gressi've, the emphatic, and the interrogative. 

40. (a) A reflexive verb is one that has for an object 
the same person or thing as its subject. " She admires 
herself. " 

(b) An impersonal verb is one whose subject, " it," re- 
fers to no particular antecedent, but only helps express 
that some action or process is going on. "It rains." "It 
is cold." 

41. There are three classes of prepositions: simple, 
complex (jireposition-phra&es) , and compound. 

In the sentence, "The well is twenty feet deep," a late 
author on the subject of English grammar supplies a sup- 
posed ellipsis, making it read, "The well is deep [to the 
extent of~\ twenty feet." The phrase enclosed in brackets is 
called a "complex preposition, which takes for its object 
the noun, " feet." Mr. Harvey in his " English Grammar" 
says the noun, "feet," is "in the objective case without 
a governing word " [expressed]. Dwight Whitney in his 
admirable "Essentials of English Grammar," says: "We may 
best call this use of the noun an adverbial objective : that is, 
an objective case used with the value of an adverb." 
There is no need of supplying the so-called ' ' complex 
preposition " in sentences like the above example. The 
original sentence is " good English," and it should not be 
marred and weakened by inserting between its elements 
such clumsy phrases as "to the extent of," ''to the distance of," 
and the like. 

42. Of a subject we may predicate : 
(a) What it does ; 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(b) What qualities it possesses ; 

(c) What it is. 

Of these predicates, (a), is always a verb, (b), an ad- 
jective, (c , a nouu or pronoun. 

43. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its 
elements. 

44. Synthesis is the construction of sentences from 
words. 

45. A paradigm is a scheme, or model form by which 
to inflect words. 

46. The new conjugation is the " regular " or as some- 
times called, the " iveak" conjugation. 

47. The old conjugation is the " irregular, " or ^' strong" 
conjugation. 

48. All new verbs coming into use are of the regular or 
weak conjugation. The past tense and perfect participle 
of verbs of the new conjugation are spelled alike, and end 
in ed. 

49. A factitive predicate is an adjective or noun 
brought b_y a transitive verb into relation with its object, 
as qualifying or describing that object. " They planed the 
board smooth. " "They made him their leader." In the first 
sentence "smooth" belongs to ^ 'board." In the second ex- 
ample, ''leader" modifies "him." 

50. Adjectives are classified according to use into three 
divisions: attrihdive, appositive, and predicate. "The old 
man knelt by her side;" attributive. " The man oZ(i and 
weary walked slowly on ; " appositive. " The man was old 
and careworn ;" predicate. 

51. As to form: simple, complex, and compound. 

52. As to use : assertive, interrogative, and imperative. 

53. The so-called "genitive case" is what is commonly 
called the possessive case. 

54. The "dative case" corresponds to the indirect ob- 
ject of transitive verbs, or to the objective case with the 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 177 

preposition " to" or "for." It is often called the dative- 
objective." 

55. With respect to their meaning and use adverbs are 
divided into five classes ; adverbs of time, place, cause, 
manner, and degree. 

To the above may be added modal, interrogative, and con- 
jtmctive adverbs. 

56. There are three participles : the present, the perfect, 
and the compound. 

57. It is always plural, even though only one persou is 
addressed. 

Avoid such forms as, " Was you at the lecture last even- 
ing, Mr. Hinton ? '' 

58. The words yes and no when used in replying, or 
responding to a question, are called responsives. 

59. Conjunctions, prepositions conjunctive adverbs, 
relative pronouns, relative pronominal adjectives, and rel- 
ative conjunctions. 

60. Conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, relative pro. 
nouns, relative adjectives, and relative conjunctions. 

61. Which and what are the only relative adjectives. 

62. By its form, and its meaning and u.se in a sentence. 

63. Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of 
one modification for another. As, ' ' than ivhom [who] a 
fiend more fell is nowhere found." 

" It was ?ne [ I ] at the door." j 

64. By adding the sign, 's : as, t's, ^'s, +'s, 7's and 
and 9's. 

65. To put it in any required form. 

66. Shall, in the first person, and will, in the second 
and third future tenses, are used to denote futurity. Will, 
in the first person, and shall in the second or third, denote 
necessity, or determination. 

67. Cases are forms of nouns and pronouns that indi- 
cate their relations to other words. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

There are three case-forms — distinguished as nominative, 
pos><:essive, and objeetive. Of these, the nominative singular 
is the base of inflection from which the others are 
derived: as, 

Boy, nominative. He, nominative. 

Boy's, possessive. His, possessive. 

Boy, objective. Him, objective. 

It will be observed that the objective case-form of nouns 
is the same with the nominative, while most of the pro- 
nouns have a special case-form for use when the word is 
the object of a verb or preposition. And it is " partly by 
analogy with the pronouns, and partly because many 
other languages related with English, and even the En- 
glish itself in earlier times, do distinguish the object from 
the subject in nouns as well as in pronouns, that we us- 
ually speak of nouns as having an object case". 

68. (a) A word is the sign of an idea ; (b) a letter is 
a character used to represent an elementary sound ; (c) a 
syllable is a letter or combination of letters capable of 
being uttered by a single impulse of the voice. 

69. The second permn should precede the third, and the 
third should precede the jird) as, " You, he, and / were 
playmates." 

70. By relative pronouns and relative conjuctions. 
The relative conjunctions are where, whence, whither, 

when, why. They are also called relative adverbs. 

71. By conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs; also, by 
prepositional phrases ; an J, not unfrequently, compound 
relatives introduce propositions equivalent to adverbial 
elements; as " Carry out my orders whoever may interpose.'' 

72. (a) They are nouns that mark the things which 
they signify, as small of size. 

(b) They are formed by adding to nouns the sufl[ixes, 
kin, let, ling, ock, el, erel, et; as, lamb/:i?i, brooklet. 

73. Analysis deals with sentences ; parsing, with words. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 179 

111 analysis, a sentence is separated into its elements, and 
tlieir relations and dependencies are given. 

In parsing, words are classified as certain parts of speech, 
and their properties and relations are stated. 

74. The difference lies in their ■use, depending upon 
the part of speech they are made to modify ; as, " He 
stands firm." Here the word "firm," may be an adjective 
belonging to the subject " he," or it may be considered an 
adverb modifying the verb "stands." Adjective eleinents 
modify nouns and pronouns. Adverbml elements modify 
verbs, participles, adjectives, and adverbs. 

75. The indicative, the imperative, and the potential, 
in principal sentences; the subjunctive, the indicative, and 
the potential, in subordinate sentence ; the infinitive and 
the participial, in abridged sentences. 

76. (a) A departure from the ordinary use of words, 
either in forvx, construction, or literal signification. 

(b) A departure from the ordinary construction of 
words. 

77. (a) By using different words ; as, boy, girl. 

(b) By different terminations ; as, priest, priestess. 

(c) By prefixes and suffixes ; as, man-servant, maid- 
servant; turkey-cock, turkey-hen. 

78. Because Anglo-Saxon words predominate in the 
writings of modern English authors. 

On examination of passages selected from standard 
English works, it is found that of every hundred words, 
about sixty are of Anglo-Saxon origin, while the most of 
the remainder are from the Latin and Greek, in the pro- 
portion of six of the former to one of the latter. 

79. By universal grammar is meant those laws of lan- 
guage that are common to all tongues. 

80. It does not. 

Gender, in the proper use of the term, means that form 
(spelling) of nouns (and of pronouns) which indicates the 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sex of the person or thing which they represent. For 
example, the noun "man," and the pronoun "he," show 
that a person of the male sex is meant : the noun "woman," 
and the pronoun "she," show that a person of the female 
sex is meant : the nouns "person," "child," and " indi- 
vidual," and the pronoun "it," show that no particular 
sex is meant, sex not being taken into consideration in 
the mind of the speaker when using these terms. Hence, 
these words have no gender, since they do not indicate l)y 
their /or?/i the sex of the objects which they represent. 

81. They are, properly, divided into two classes, viz.: 
gender-nouns and non-gender nouns. This classification is 
based on the principles stated in the above answer (80). 

Grammarians, as a rule, classify nouns under thesulgect 
"gender," into four classes ; masculine, feminine, common, 
and neuter. 

82. We may indicate by the possessive case, ownership, 
aiithorship, origin, or hmd. 

83. Self (singular), and selves (plural), are added to 
the simple personal pronouns to form their compounds 
which have two principal uses. 

First, to mark emphasis ; as, " I, ynyself, did it". 
Second, as the reflexive object of a verb ; as, " She ad- 
mires herself". 

84. It is the form of speech peculiar to the people of 
different regions of a country, who speak essentially the 
same parent language. 

85. The English of Ireland, or of Scotland, is a dialect 
of the English language. 

86. Taking the Anglo-Saxon as the basis of English, 
the languages from which tlie English words have been 
chiefly derived are the German, Latin, French, and 
Greek. Or, it may be said the chief sources of origin of 
English words are the Latin, the German, and the Greek, 
since French is a Latin language. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 181 

87. As subject, it in;iy represent a predicate of any 
gender, person, or number. 

And, it frequently stands as apparent subject of a verb 
instead of a phrase or clause which is the real subject. 

Again, it is often used as subject without reference to 
any particular antecedent. In this use it is called an 
impersonal subject. 

88. A should be used before words beginning with a 
consonant sound. 

A7i should be used before words beginning with a vowel 
sound. 

A and an are used with nouns in the singular number 
only. 

89. We say an hour because /( in the word " hour" is 
silent, consequently the first sound is a vowel sound. A 
is used before the other words mentioned, because they 
begin with a consonant sound, either that of y or u. 

90. A verb is a word that asserts or declares. The 
name " verb" comes from the Latin " verbwn" meaning 
word. A verb, as the name indicates, is the word of a 
sentence, since no sentence can be formed without a verb. 

91. A verb-phrase is an expression composed of one 
of the roots of a verb and an auxiliary to show either tense 
or mode, or both ; as, am writing, may have been writing, had 
been written, etc. 

In the phrase, am uriting, the base is the fourth root 
(write, wi-ote, written, writing,) of the verb [to] write, ami 
to it is prefixed the present (first root) of the verb, [to] be, 
to form the present progressive of the verb [to] write. 

In the phrase, may have been writing, "have been" is 
prefixed as an auxiliary to express time, and "may" is 
used as an auxiliary to express mode, the potential. 

In the phrase, had been written, the third root of the 
verb [to] write is the base, with " had been " as a prefix to 
express time; "been" being the perfect of [to] be, and 



182 ENGLISU GRAMMAR. 

" had, " the past of [to] have, the two words forming the 
so-cnl\ed past jjerfect of [ii)'] be, and the entire phrase, the 
past perfect passive of [to] write. 

92 By prefixing either the present or the past root of 
[to] be to the present participle (fourth root) of a verb ; as 
am writing, was writing. 

93. By prefixing either the present or past root of [to] 
do to the present indicative of a verb ; as, do write, did 
write. 

94. Because such verbal expressions are not limited in 
form (spelling) to mark agreement in person and number 
with their subjects. 

For illustration, *'A man reads," " Men read :" " I read," 
"Thou readest." In the first two sentences the mimber of 
the subject governs the form (spelling) of the verb. In 
the last two, the person of the subject governs the form 
(spelling) of the verb. Or, in other words, the person and 
number of the subject govern the form of the verb. But 
some verbal expressions are not so governed, their form 
being the same whatever the person and number of the 
subject used with them ; as, "I desire you to go, him to go, 
them to go, herself to go, everybody to go." Such forms 
are called infinitives, since they are not limited or re- 
stricted in form, by their subjects, to mark agreement in 
person or number. 

95. There is but one verb in the English language that 
has a subjunctive mode, that is, a form distinct from the 
indicative. The verb referred to is the copula, "to be.'' 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

I am. (if) I be. 

I was. (if) I were. 

I had been. (if) I had been. 
*• The subjunctive form of the subjunctive mode is obso- 
lescent." 

96. Verb-phrases formed by uniting auxiliaries with 
infinitives or participles. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 183 

97. Articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjec- 
tions. 

The interjection is not called a "part of speech" by some 
authoi's. 

98. A sentence so constructed that its meaning is sus- 
pended till the close. 

99. All phrases and clauses are of the third person and 
singular number; as, " Three times Jive is fifteen." " That 
he intetided to defraud his creditors is now clearly shown." 

100. The expression of a thought involves the selection 
of a subject, and the predication of either: 

(a) What it does; 

(b) What it is ; or, 

(c) What qualities it possesses. 

101. Change the verb into the passive form ; then 
make the subject in the active the object of a preposition, 
and the object in the active the subject in the passive. 

102. First, to conceal the actor ; as, " My pen was 
broken at recess." 

Second, to give prominence to an act; as, "All things 
were created by God." 

Third, to state an act when the agent is unknown ; as, 
**A horse was stolen last night." 

103. By the syntax of a word is meant its construction 
in a sentence. 

104. Every verb may be resolved into a copula and 
predicate, or " into a copula and attribute." 

105. A noun as subject is always of the tJiird person, a 
pronoun may be subject in any person. 

A noun never has a conjunctive use, a class of pronouns 
(relatives) always has. 

A noun may be modified by an attributive adjective, 
a pronoun never can be so modified. 

106. Pleonasm is the use of more words than are neces- 
sary to the full construction of a sentence. Expansion 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

changes the class of an element, bnt its full force as a 
modifier is retained. 

107. "In ellipsis, words are omitted because the con- 
nection between the elements of a sentence can be grasped 
by the mind without using them, but they must be sup- 
plied in parsing and analysis." In abridgement, the class 
of the element is changed by substituting an equivalent 
expression for an entire proposition ; but a sentence short- 
ened by abridgement retains its original force as a modifier, 
and it is not necessary to expand it in parsing or analysis. 

108. A noun may be used as j)redicate in the nomina- 
tive, the possessive, or the objective case. 

109. "If I was" is indicative: "If I were" is subjunc- 
tive. The sign "if" does not determine the mode of a 
verb, mode being a form (spelling) of the verb alone. But 
one verb (to be) in the English language has a subjunctive 
form. 

110. When it begins a sentence after a full pause. 
When the ol)ject it represents is personified. 

When it comes from a proper noun through the appli- 
cation of a particular name to each of a class or group of 
objects. 

When it becomes a word of special importance. 

111. A finite verb is one that is limited (finited) in 
form to mark agreement in person and number with its 
subject. 

112. " Epigram is a sentence in which the form of the 
language contradicts the meaning conveyed." 

Syncope is the omission of a letter or letters in the 
middle of a word. 

Oblique is a terra by which tlie other cases are distin- 
guished from the nominative in its various constructions. 

113. The time expressed by the principal verb in the 
sentence in which the participle is used. 

114. They are principal propositions; those that are 
assertive in form, 



ENCiLlSII GRAMMAR. 185 

115. The indicative, and the potential. 

116. A predicate adjective is joined to a noun or pro- 
noun by a copulative verb. 

An attributive adjective is joined to a noun without the 
aid of a connective. 

A predicate adjective may modify a pronoun : an attrib 
utive adjective can not do so. 

117. By the way they are used in a sentence. 

118. The absolute tenses are the present, the past, and 
the future. 

The relative tenses are the present perfect, the past perfect 
and the future perfect. 

119. From hearing language used improperly, and 
from a lack of knowledge of orthography and syntax. 

120. Those nouns which when construed as either 
masculine or feminine, may be considered as virtually in- 
cluding both sexes; as, " Doth the Imwk fly by thy wis- 
dom, and stretch her wings toward the south ? " 

121. Scanning is the dividing of a verse into the feet 
of which it is formed. 

It belongs to the subject of Prosody. 

122. (a) An inversion of words from the natural order 
of arrangement. 

(b) A figurative discourse in which fictitious events rep- 
resent and illustrate realities. 

(c) "An extravagant exaggeration, in which the imagin- 
ation is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth." 

123. A verse is a single line of poetic composition. 

A paragraph is a sentence or a number of sentences of 
prose, on a branch of a subject. 

A stanza is a number of lines in poetry, arranged ac 
cording to the laws of versification. 

124. A foot is a number of syllables grouped according 
to the laws of metrical composition. 

125. The principal feet are the iambus, the trochee, the 
anapest, and the dactyl. 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

126. Most grammarians of the present day state that 
usage justifies the employment of either expression. But 
logically, "tfie first two" is the better arrangement of the 
phrase. 

127. This and its plural these should be applied to ob- 
jects nearer than others of the same class in view. 

That and its plural those should be applied to objects 
farther away than others of the same class in view. 

128. Each of the parts of speech named could be 
logically and naturally grouped under three heads, viz. ; 

SIMPLE, DERIVATIVE, and COMPOUND. 

129. Nouns add the letter s to the singular to make-the 
plural; verbs drop the letters from the singular form to 
make the plural. The contrary of these rules is of course 
true. 

130. The comma (,), the colon (:), the semi-colon (;), 
the period (.), the question mark (?), the curves (()), the 
dash ( — ), the exclamation point (!), and the quotation 
marks (" "). 

131. The infinitive is a verbal noun expressing in 
noun-form that which the verb a.sserts. 

The participle is a verbal adjective. 

132. The adjective clause. 

133. The clause, ' ' where it lay ". 

134. " When" is a relative conjunction, and joins the 
clause "Rome was founded," to "date". "When Rome 
was founded" may be called an appositive clause, limiting 
"date". 

135. The grammatical subject is the "apparent" sub- 
ject, that which stands in the relation of the real subject. 
The pronoun it. is often used as the grammatical subject 
of a sentence in which it represents a phrase or clause 
which is the real subject ; as, " It is wrong to tell a lie." 
Here " it " is the grammatical or apparent subject, while 
the true or logical subject is "to tell a lie." Some gram- 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



187 



mnriaus call " it " the real or logical subject in sentences 
like the above, and parse the phrase or clause which it 
represents, in apposition with "it," making the sentence 
read, " It, to tell a lie, is wrong." 

136. It is the real subject. (See 135.) 

137. Verbs have but two tense-forms, present and past, 
the other tenses being represented by verb-phrases. Thus, I 
see, I saw, I sliall see; of which, "see" is the present tense- 
form, " saw" the past, and " shall see" a phrase made up 
of the present "see," and "shall" as auxiliary, and 
represents the future of " to see." 

138. The divisions of time are — 



PRESENT 

Made on (1st 
root.) 

PRESENT PERFECT 

Made on (3d 
root with 
auxiliary.) 



PAST 

(2d root.) 

PAST PERFECT 

(3d root with 
auxiliary.) 



FUTURE 

(1st root with - 
auxiliary.) 

FUTURE PERFECT 

(3d root with 
auxiliary.) 



Imperfect or 
Absolute 
Tenses. 

Perfect or 
Relative 
Tenses. 



4th 



FUTURE. 

I shall or will give. 

FUTURE PERFECT. 

I shall or will have 
given. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

1st 2d 3d 
To GIVE : roots — give, gave, giv(e)en, giv(e)ing. 

PRESENT. PAST. 

I give. 1 gave. 

PRESENT PERFECT. PAST PERFECT. 

I have given. I had given. 

139. It is always the equivalent of an attributive or 
appositive adjective. 

140. By co-ordinating conjunctions. 

141. Those that are of the same rank with one another, 
either as being alike dependent, or independent^ with the 
same construction. 

142. Objects that are "allied" or "related" in mean- 
ing to the verbs that govern them; as, "I dreamt a dream." 
" He sleeps the sleep that knows no waking." 

143. A person's native language. " One's mother 
tongue." 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

SOME SUGGESTIVE PARSINGS. 

[sentences selected chiefly fkom " Whitney's essen- 
tials OF ENGLISH."] 

ADJECTIVES. 

1. The sun seemed shorn of liis beams. 

2. Few aad short were the prayers we said. 

3. Ambition makes my little less. 

4. John has the letter written. 

5. You see him running. 

6. She wrings the clothes dry. 

7. With him lay dead both hope and pride. 

8. They all, with one consent, began to make excuse. 

9. He was a far-seeing, and a high-minded statesman. 

10. The last impossible, he fears the first. 

11. The children came rwmmgf and shouting. 

'^ Shorn" is an adjective, derivative, from the verb s^ear, 

cannot be inflected, and is predicated of the sub- 
ject, "sun." 
"FeAv" and "short" are adjectives, simple, can be inflected, 

positive degree, and are predicated of the subject, 

"prayers." 
"Le.ss" is an adjective, derivative, from the adjective little, 

can be inflected, comparative degree, ^factitive 

predicate of the noun, ''little." 
" Written" is an adjective, derivative, from the verb ivrite, 

cannot be inflected, fappositive, and belongs to 

"letter." 
•Running" is an adjective, derivative, from the verb run, 

cannot be inflected, appositive, and belongs to 

"him." 
"Dry" is an adjective, simple, can be inflected, positive 

degree, factitive predicate of " clothes." 



*Brought into relation with the direct object by the verb. 
tSame relation as a noin or pronoun in apposition. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 189 

'^Dead" is an adjective, simple, cannot be inflected, *ad- 
verbial predicate, and belongs to " hope " and 
"fear." 

"All" is an adjective, simple, cannot be inflected, apposi- 
tive, and belongs to " they." 

"Far-seeing"" is an adjective, compound derivative, can be 
inflected, attributive, and belongs to * ' states- 
man." 

"Impossible" is an adjective, simple, cannot be inflected, 
appositive, and belongs to ' ' last." 

^^ Running" is an adjective, derivative, cannot be inflected, 
adverbial predicate of ' ' children. " 

NOUNS. 

1. The proud countess was only a beggar-girl in her 
childhood. 

2. The htmhkin skips playful o'er the lawn. 

3. James is taller than his sister. 

4. The last impossible, he fears the first. 

5. She walks a very queen. 

6. Who broke this slate ? Williayn. 

7. He is liked as a teadier. 

8. His being a boy saved him. 

9. We read of Ciesar's crossing the Rubicon. 

10. That book is John's. 

11. John's book lies by Harry's. 

12. That book of John's is well bound. 

13. The well is ten feet deep. 

14. They watched all night long. 

15. They called him a coward. 

16. He gave his friend a book. 

17. They made him their fca(/er. 

"Countess" is a gender-nouu, feminine, derivative, singu- 
lar, nominative, subject of "was." 



*Modifies both subject and verb. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"Beggar-girl" is a gender-noun, feminine, compound, 
singular, nominative, predicate of "countess." 

" Lambkin " is a noun, derivative, diminutive, singular, 
nominative, subject of " skips." 

"Sister" is a gender-noun, feminine, simple, singular, 
nominative, after the comparative " than." 

" Last" is a noun-adjective, simple, singular, nominative, 
pendant. 

"Queen" is a gender-noun, feminine, simple, singular, 
nominative, predicate of '' she." 

" William" is a gender-noun, masculine, proper, singular, 
nominative, by position 

** Teacher" is a noun, derivative, singular, nominative, 
by apposition with " he." 

"Boy" is a gender-noun, masculine, simple, singular, 
nominative, predicate with " being." 

"Cesar's" is a gender-noun, masculine, singular, possess- 
ive, limits " crossing. " 

" John's " is a gender-noun, masculine, singular, possess- 
ive, predicate of "book." 

" Harry's " is a gender-noun, masculine, singular, pos|ess- 
ive, object of "by." 

"John's " is a gender-noun, masculine, singular, possess- 
ive, object of "of, " and limits "book." 

" Feet" is a noun, simple, singular, objective, adverbial 
object, limits " is deep." 

" Night " is a noun, simple, singular, objective, adverbial 
object, limits " long." 

" Coward" is a noun, simple, singular, objective, factitive 
predicate of " him." 

" Friend" is a noun, simple, singular, objective, dative, 
object of " gave." 

" Leader" is a noun derivative, singular, objective, fac- 
titive predicate of * ' him." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 191 



PRONOUNS. 



1 . I know ivho broke the window. 

2. He has more books than he can read. 

3. He has as many books as he can read. 

4. It is fine weather, Mr. Blodston. 

5. They asked him to leave. 

6. I knew it to be thevi. 

7. The lad hurt himself with a knife. 

8. I made the book his. 

9. That boy is a friend of mine. 

10. That book is hers. 

11. That horse of yours looks old. 

12. It is wonderful how she can sing. 

"Who" is a pronoun, indefinite, nominative, * subject 
of ' ' broke ". 

"Than" is a pronoun, relative, antecedent " books", ob- 
jective, t object of " can read ". 

"As" is a pronoun, relative, antecedent "books", ob- 
jective, object of " can read ". 

" It " is a pronoun, % impersonal, nominative, subject 
of "is". 

" Him" is a pronoun, personal, antecedent name of person 
spoken to, objective, dative object of "ordered". 

" It " is a pronoun, personal, antecedent ' ' them ", objective, 
objective subject of " to be". 

"Them" is a pronoun, personal, antecedent name of per- 
sons or things spoken of, objective, predicate 
of "it". 

"Himself" is a pronoun, personal, antecedent "lad", 
objective, reflexive object of " hurt". 

* The clause " who broke the window " is the object of " know ". 
t " Than," originally a comparative conjunction. 

X The offiee of " it ", when used as above, is to enable the speaker to make 
an assertion when no definite agent can be named. 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"His" is a pronoun, f possessive, factitive predicate of 

"book". 
"Mine" is a possessive pronoun, objective, object of the 

2:)reposition "of". 
"Hers" is a possessive pronoun, nominative, predicate 

of "book". 
"Yours" is a possessive pronoun, objective, object of 

the preposition " of". 
"It" is a pronoun, personal, antecedent "how she can 

sing ", nominative, grammatical subject of " is". 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

1. To he contents his natural desire. 

2. It is more blessed to give than to receive. 

3. The teacher told them to begin. 

4. The very earth seemed to tremble. 

5. We have studied long enough to rest. 

6. They saw her depart. 

7. He was about to call a cab. 

8. To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die. 

9. We are so delighted to go. 

10. Leaves have their time to fall, and flowers to wither. 
IL Tom's being here was a lucky thing. 

12. We read of Csesar's ^assm^ the Rubicon. 

13. It stands firmly planted. 

14. He, being weary, has retired for the night. 

15. We, standing on the summit of the peak, beheld 
the broad valley below. 

" To be" is the present infinitive of the verb he, used as a 
noun, nominative, subject of " contents." 

"To give" is the present infinitive of give, used as a noun, 
nominative, logical subject of " is." 



t The words "his", "mine", "hers", "yours", as used above, are 
forms of the personal pronouns used in the relation of adjectives. They 
are classed by different authors as " possessive pronouns ", " possessive ad- 
jectives ", or simply " possessives". 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 193 

** To receive" is the present infinitive of receive, used as 
a noun, nominative after the comparative "than." 

' ' To BEGIN " is the present infinitive of begin, used as a 
noun, dative object of " told." 

"To tremble" is the present infinitive of tremble, used as 
an adverb, modifies "seemed." 

" To REST " is the present infinitive of rest, and used as an 
adverb, modifies " enough." 

"Depart" is the present infinitive of depart object of 
" saw," and adjunct to " her".* 

"To CALL " is the present infinitive of call, used as a noun, 
object of " about." 

" To die " is the present infinitive of die, used as a noun, 
nominative, predicate of "to live." 

" To GO " is the present infinitive of go, used as an adverb, 
and belongs to " delighted." 

"To fall" is the present infinitive of fall, used as an ad- 
jective and limits " time." 

" Being" is the present participle of be, used as a noun, 
nominative, subject of " was." 

"Passing" is the present participle of pass, active, tran- 
sitive, used as a noun, objective, object of the 
preposition ' ' of. " 

"Planted" is the perfect participle of plant, f adverbial 
predicate of "stands." 

"Being" is the present participle of be, used appositively, 
and with "weary" limits " he." 

" Standing " is the present participle of stand, used as an 
adjective, appositive, limits " we." 

*" Her [to] depart " is the object of " saw," " [to] depart " being a kiud 
of adjunct to " her." 
t Modifies both subject and verb. 



194 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SYSTEMS OF DIAGRAMMING. 

The following is intended to illustrate, in part, eacli of 
the four popular systems ofdiagraniniing taught in the public 
schools. For the systems complete, see Reed & Kellogg'b 
Higher Lessons in English, published by Clark & May- 
uard, N. Y. ; Harvey's English Grammar (revised 
edition), Irish's Grammar and Analysis by Diagrams, 
and Holbrook's Complete English Grammar, published 
by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati, O. 

The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity 
of vibration. 




Higher Lessons in English, page 37. 
Ah ! anxious wives, sisters, and mothers, wait for the 

Ah 



news 



wives 




1 




sifters 


wait 


mothers 


\ 1 


Vffi' 








Id., page 42. 



ENGLISH (iRAMMAR. 



' 195 



The hot-liouso is ;i trap to catch siuibeains. 

hdl-luiiisr i.-i \ trap 



\-4 



catch I Hunbearrm 



They that touch pitch will be defiled. 



Id., page 70. 



Thni 



mil he defiled 



that '■ I Iciiirh \ pitch 

i 



Id., page 95. 



I found the place to which you referred. 



-\- 



found I pin 



you I referred 



ivkich 



Id. , page 96. 
A depot is a place where stores are deposited. 
depot I i'x ^ place 



stores. I \ are depodled 

i 



Id., page 98. 



196 I':nglisii grammar. 

The ground is wet because it has rained. 

ground \ is \ wet 






it I \ has rained 



Id., page 103. 



A life of prayer is a life of heaven. 

life I /.< : life 



A 

of prayer 



of heaven 



Harvey's English Grammar, page 267. 

Many actions apt to procure fame are not conducive to 
our ultimate happiness. 





actions \ 


ire : 


ran 


dueive 




Many \ 
apt 


not 


to happiness 








our 




\ to procure fame 





Id., page 267. 
Industry, honesty, and economy generally insure success. 



Industry 
honesty 

and 
economy 




insure success 



generally 



Id. , page 267. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



197 



The gentleman who was dressed in brown-once-black, 
had a sort of medico-theological exterior, which we after- 
wards found to be representative of the inward man. 

(jentleman , had , xort 



The 

who , was dressed 



of exterior 



in brawn- 
once-black 



medico-theological 
we I found which 



afterwards 



to be-representative 



of man 



the 
inward 



Id., page 269. 
Every man desires to live long ; but no man would be 

man | would be ; old 



old 

man , desires ■ to live 



Every 



but 



long 



Id., page 271. 
A soldier of the Legion lay dying in Algiers. 



soldier 


lay — 


- dying 




A 


of- 


— Legion 


in 


— Algiers 








the 







Irish's Grammatical Diagrams, page 46. 



198 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The village all declared liow much he knew. — Goldsmith. 



village 



The 



declared 



he I knew 



all 



much 



hoiv 



Id., page 74. 



The fires of the bivouac complete what the fires kindled 
by the battle have not consumed. 



> 


'res 


complete 






The 


,„■ 






that 






J 










the 












fires 1 


have consumed 




Inch 




the 




kindled — ^ 


?/ 














L. 


by — battle 
the J 


Id., page 53 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



199 



His excuse was, that the roads were very bad, that the 
supply train could not be brought uj), and that the army 
was not well enough equipped for offensive operations. 



exruxf I irna, — 



His 




that 
I 7-oads I were — bad, 

ihej I very J 

( and ) 



I irain \ could be brought 
supply J I ' not J [jup 



the J 



and 
that 
army \ was equipped 



notj 



\imll 



[enough 
for — operations 
offensive J 

Id., page 68. 



A little one shall become a thousand, and a small one a 
strong nation. 



!<hall heroine — a thousand. 



little j 



A ) and 

one I ( sliall hceome ) — nation 
small j 



strong j 



a] 



Id., page 106. 



200 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



A mau less diligent in business would have failed in the 
enterprise. 



J A ( /ess 

'^ \ diligent < 



!_ in business 
would have failed \ in enterprvtc | the. 

Holbrook's English Grammar, page 146. 



The ship which sailed yesterday was laden with salt. 

r The 

ship J C which 

^ ^sailed | yesterday 



was laden \ with salt. 



Id., page 147. 



They desired him to accept doctrines which he dis- 
believed. 



r They 

C him 
{^desired | to accepts 

Ldodrines 



Che 

.disbelieved \ ivhich. 
Id., page 150. 



QUESTIONS 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



1. Define letter, syllable, elementary sound. 

2. What is a digraph ? A trigraph ? 

3. What is a diphthong ? A triphthong ? 

4. What is an apthong? An alphabet? 

5. What are the organs of the voice ? 

6. What are the organs of articulation ? 

7. What is a word ? What is accent ? 

8. What is the basis of a syllable ? 

9. What are silent letters ? 

10. What is the use of silent letters ? 

11. How are words classified as to origin? 

12. How are words classified as to form? 

13. How many syllables in a word? 

14. What is a prefix ? What is a suflSx ? 

15. What are prefixes and suffixes called collectively ? 

16. How many kinds of accent ? 

17. What words have accent ? 

18. To what does every consonant in a word belong? 

19. How are the consonants divided with respect to 
their powers ? 

20. How are consonants classified with reference to the 
organs of speech ? 

21. Which letters are never silent ? 

22. What are subvocals, semivowels, Unguals ? 

23. What are labials, sibilants, aspirates ? 



202 ORTHOCiRAPHY. 

24. What is phonology ? 

25. What is orthography ? 

26. What is orthoepy ? 

27. What faculties of the mind are called into use by 
the, study of orthography ? 

28. When does one letter become a substitute for 
another ? 

29. What are cognates ? 

30. What are the primary elements of the English 
vocabulary ? 

31. How many elementary sounds in the English 
language ? 

32. What is the power of a letter ? 

33. What is the name of a letter ? 

34. AVhat is a permanent compound word ? 

35. What is a temporary com])ound word ? 

36. When a word is divided at the end of a line, what 
rule applies ? 

37. When is a consonant in a word said to be ante- 
cedent ? 

38. When is a consonant in a word said to be subse- 
quent ? 

39. Name the double consonants. 

40. Which letters are liquids, and why so called? 

41. Name the labials. 

42. Name the dentals. 

43. Name the palatals. 

44. Name the Unguals ; the linguo-dentals. 

45. What is said of the letter h ? 

46. What is said of w and y ? 

47. By what is q always followed ? 

48. What is a derivative word ? 

49. What is a primitive word ? 

50. What is a simj)le word ? 

51. What is a compound word ? 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 203 

52. What part of a derivative is the radical ? 

53. What is it to syllabify a word ? 

54. Give rules for the use of the hyphen, 

55. What is a word of one syllable called ? 

56. What is a word of four or more syllables called ? 

57. What is a word of two syllables called ? Of three 
syllables ? 

58. Name the letters that have no sound of their own. 

59. Name the vowel letters. 

60. Which letters are always vowels ? 

61. Name the consonant letters. 

62. When is i a consonant ? 

63. When is u a consonant? 

64. Which consonants are never doubled ? 

65. How is X pronounced when initial ? 

66. How distinguish th aspirate from ill subvocal? 

67. When is 6 silent? 

68. When is c silent ? 

69. AVhenisJsilent? 

70. When is g silent ? 

71. When is /i silent? 

72. When is h silent? 

73. When is /silent? 

74. When is m silent ?• 

75. When is n silent ? 

76. When isp silent? 

77. When is s silent ? 

78. When is t silent ? 

79. In what word is v silent ? 

80. When is w silent ? 

81. In what word is z silent? 

82. What is an aphthong ? 

83. What is the last syllable in a word called ? 

84. What is the last syllable ])ut one called ? 

85. What is the last syllable but two called ? 



204 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

86. What is the base of a compound word ? 

87. What is the modifier in a compound word ? 

88. Name three kinds of spelling. 

89. How are nouns and verbs having the same spelling 
distinguished from each other ? 

90. What are synonyms ? 

91. What are antonyms ? 

92. What are homonyms? 

93. Give the rules for spelling words ending in e. 

94. Give ten rules for the use of capital letters. 

95. Give rules for doubling the final consonant in a 
word. 



ANSV/ERS 

TO 

QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 



1. A letter is a character used to represent an ele- 
mentary sound made by the organs of speech. 

A syllable is a sound or combination of sounds uttered 
by a single impulse of the voice ; or a letter or combina- 
tion of letters representing sound so uttered. 

An elementary sound is a simple sound. 

2. A digraph is a combination of two letters repre- 
senting a single sound. 

A trigraph is a combination of three letters representing 
a single sound, or forming one syllable. 

3. A diphthong is a combination of two vowels form- 
ing one syllable or sound. 

A triphthong is a combination of three vowels forming 
one syllable or sound. 

4. (a) A letter or combination of letters representing 
no sound in words in which they occur. 

(b) The letters of a language constitute an alphabet. 

5. The essential organ of the voice is the larynx. It 
is assisted in the i)roduction of voice by the lungs, trachea, 
and mouth. 

6. The tongue, teeth, lips, and palate 

7. (a) A syllable or a combination of syllables symbolic 
of an idea. 

(b) A stress of voice given a syllable of a word to dis- 
tinguish it from others in the same word. 



206 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

8. Some vowel or coinliination of vowels. 

9. Those that have no sound in the words in which they 
occur. 

10. Either to modify the power of other letters or to 
determine the signification of words. 

11. Into two classes ; primitives and derivatives. 

12. Into two classes ; simple and compound. 

13. In every word there are as many syllables as there 
are vowel sounds. 

14. (a) A significant syllable or word joined to a word 
at its beginning to modify its meaning. 

(b) A significant syllable or syllables joined to the end 
of a word to modify its meaning. 

15. The collective name of prefixes and suftixes is 
affixes. 

1 6. Two kinds, viz : j)rimary and secondary. 

17. Every word of more than one syllable has one of 
its syllables accented. 

18. Every consonant, unless it is silent, belongs to 
some vowel or combination of vowels. 

19. Into two general classes, namely: semi- vowels and 
mutes. 

20. The principal divisions are linguals, })alatals, den- 
tals, and labials. Other classifications are linguo-dentals, 
palato-nasals, etc. 

21. F, j, q, r, X, y, v (except in sevemiight), and z (ex- 
cept in rendez'voua.) 

22. (a) Consonants whose sounds are obstructed by 
the vocal organs. 

(b) Consonants whose sounds may be prolonged. 

(c) Consonants whose sounds are modified chiefly by 
the tongue. 

23. (a) Consonants whose sounds are modified chiefly 
by the lips. 

(b) Consonants that are uttered with a hissing of the 
voice. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 207 

(c) Consonants tliat are })ro(luco(l l)y mere emissions 
of breath. 

24. Tliat hranch of science which treats of the element- 
tary sounds uttered l)y the human vok-e 

25. It is tliat division of grammar which treats oi' 
letters, syllables, and spelling. 

26. It is that department of grammar which treats of 
the correct pronunciation of words. 

27. The perceptive faculties and memory ; or, chiefly 
form and memory. 

28. When it represents the sound of another letter. 

29. Those letters whose elements are jjroduced by the 
same organs of speech in nearly similar 'portions. 

30. Words of Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and French-Latin 
origin. 

31. There are forty-one elementary sounds in the 
English language. 

32. The elementary sound which a letter represents. 

33. The term by which it is known. 

34. One whose parts are united w'thoat a hyphen. 

35. One whose parts are united tvith a hyi)hen. 

36. Use a hyphen to mark the division. 

A syllable must not be broken at the end of a line. 

37. When it precedes the vowel or diphthong to which 
it belongs. 

38. When it follows the vowel or diphthong to which it 
belongs. 

39. Ch, gh, ph, sh, th, %vh, and ng. 

40. L, m, n, and r. 

They are called liquids on account of the fluency of 
their sounds; i. e., the readiness with which they unite 
with other sounds. 

41. B,f, m, p, V, w, and the double consonant ivh. 

42. J, s, z, ch, sh, c and g soft. These are classified in 
the table of consonants in this work as lingva-denials. 



208 ORTHOGRAPHY 

43. K, q, X, h, ng, c and g hard : x is properly a palato- 
dental, and ng is a palato-nasal. 

44. Linguals, I and r ; linguo-dentals, d, j, s, t, z, ch, sh, 
//i sub- vocal, ^^ aspirate, c and gf soft. i\ris alinguo-nasal, 
and y is a, linguo-palatal. 

45. It is a mere breathing, and is silent after g initial, 
or when preceded by r : also after a vowel in the same syl- 
lable. It is also silent in the words, heir, hour, herb, 
honor, and their derivatives. 

46. TT as a vowel corresponds with u. 
I^as a vowel corresponds with i. 

They are consonants when followed by a vowel heard in 
the same syllable. 

47. It is always followed by the letter u. 

48. It is one formed from some other word as a base 
with one or more formative elements. 

49. It is one not derived from any other word in the 
language to which it belongs. 

50. It is one not composed of more than one word. 

51. It is one formed by the union of two or more sim- 
ple words. 

52. It is the base to which the formative elements are 
joined. 

53. To separate it into syllables according to approved 
pronunciation. 

54. The hyphen is used (a) to join the parts of words 
or expressions temporarily compounded ; (b) to syllabify 
words ; (c) to mark the division of a word at the end of a 
line. 

55. A monosyllable. 

56. A polysyllable. 

57. (a) A dissyllable ; (b) a trisyllable. 

58. They are c, x and q. 

59. A, e, i, 0, w, and sometimes w andy. 

60. The letters a, e, and o; i and u are usually vowels. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 209 

61. They are 6, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, 
X, y, z, and sometimes i and u. 

62. When it has the consonant-sound of y ; as in alieyi. 

63. When it has the consonant- sound of w; as in quit. 

64. The letters x, j, and h. 

65. At the beginning of words x has the sound of z, 
except in words from the Spanish or German when it is 
pronounced as th aspirate (Sp.), ts (Ger.). 

66. We distinguish between th aspirate and th sub-vocal 
by uniting t and h in the sub-vocal with a bar, thus tk. 

67. When preceded by m or followed by t in the same 
syllable. It is also silent in bdellium. 

68. It is silent in the words czar, victuals, indict and 
their derivatives ; also, in muscle, and other words having 
the termination scle. 

69. This consonant is silent only in the words Wednes- 
day and handkerchief. 

70. Before m and n final, and when initial followed by 
n. 

71. After jf initial, or when preceded by r; also after 
a vowel in the same syllable. It is also silent in the words 
heir, hmir, herb, honor, and their derivatives. 

72. Before n in the same syllable ; it is likewise silent 
after c. 

73. In many words, especially before a final consonant. 

74. It is silent when it precedes n in the syllable ; as in 
mnemonics. 

75. When final after I or m. 

76. When initial before n, s, or t ; likewise in the words, 
raspberry, receipt, semptress, and corps. 

77. It is silent in the words aisle, isle, island, demesne, 
puisne, viscount; and generally at the end of French words 
adopted into English. 

78. Before ch in the same syllable ; also iu Christmas, 
eclat, mortgage, hostler, mistletoe, chestnut, and a few others; 



210 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

it is likewise silent in the terminations ten and tie after 
s and/; as infasteii^ soften, listen, etc. 

79. In the word sevennight (sen'-nit). 

80. It is always silent before r in the same syllable, as 
in tvrite; it is likewise silent in the words sword, answer, 
two, toward, and whoop. 

81. In the word rendezvous. 

82. An aphthong is a letter or combination of letters 
having no sound ; a silent letter. 

83. The ultimate syllable. 

84. The penultimate syllable, or penult. 

85. The antepenultimate syllable, or antepenult. 

86. It is the word which represents the fundamental 
idea of the compound. 

• 87. It is the word which describes the other member of 
the compound. 

88. Phonic, oral, and written. 

89. By their accent; as, con' -tract, (n), con-tract! (v). 
By their use ; as, this is a sure cure for headache (n) ; cure 
him of his evil habits (v). 

90. Words of like significance in the main, but with a 
certain unlikeness as well. 

91. Words that are opposite in meaning to other given 
words. 

92. Words having the same sound but differing in 
meaning, and usually in spelling. 

93. (a) Words with e final usually drop it on taking an 
additional syllable beginning with a vowel. 

(b) Words ending in e drop it before the termination 
fl6^ , unless e is preceded by e or g, when it is retained. 

(c) Words ending in e silent generally retain it on tak- 
ing an additional syllable beginning with a consonant. 

(d) All adverbs ending in ^t/, and nouns ending in raent, 
retain e final of the primitives. 

94. (1) The first word after a full pause should begin 
with a ca])ital letter ; and, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



211 



(2) Proper names and their derivative adjectives ; 

(3) Every line of poetry ; 

(4) The pronoun / and the interjection ; 

(5) All titles of honor ; 

(6) All appellations of Deity; 

(7) Words of special importance in a sentence, or 
heading ; 

(8) Days of the week, and months of the year ; 

(9) The names of objects personified ; 

(10) Direct quotations. 

95. (1) Derivative words of more than one syllable, 
with the accent on the last, and ending in a single conso- 
nant preceded by a single vowel, double the final letter. 

(2) Words ending in I, double it on taking the termi- 
nation ly 

(3) Words of one syllable ending in/, /, or s, preceded 
by a single vowel, generally double the final letter. 



WORDS IN COMMON USE OFTEN MIS- 
PRONOUNCED. 
To Teachers: — Select daily five words from the following 
list and write them on the blackboard for pupils to copy into 
blank-spellers prepared specially for such exercises. See tliat the 
pupils have access to an unabridged dictionary from which to de- 
termine diacritical marks, pronunciation, and etymology. The 
following day review critically the work of each pujnl. 



Abdomen. 


aforesaid. 


ancient. 


absorb. 


again. 


antipodes. 


accent. 


aged. 


apex. 


acclimate. 


agricnlture. 


apodosis. 


acorn. 


alias. 


apostle. 


adult. 


ally. 


apparatus. 


advertise. 


almond. 


arctic. 


advertisement. 


ameliorate. 


arithmetic, 



212 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 




arsenic. 


chagrin. 


denouement. 


ate. 


chaldron. 


depot. 


attache. 


chastisement. 


derisive. 


aunt. 


children. 


desiccate. 


axiom. 


clapboard. 


dessert. 


bade. 


clerk. 


destine. 


balm. 


coadjutor. 


devoir. 


barrel. 


coffee. 


diamond. 


been. 


cognomen. 


diphtheria. 


beneath. 


Colosseum. 


discern. 


bequeath. 


column. 


disfranchise. 


bestial. 


comptroller. 


distich. 


bifurcate. 


concise. 


docile. 


billet-doux. 


conduit. 


dolce. 


biography. 


conquest. 


donkey. 


bird. 


conspiracy. 


eastward. 


blackguard. 


cooper. 


eclat. 


bleat. 


cordial. 


edile. 


bombshell. 


costume. 


either. 


bouquet. 


coupe. 


elite. 


breeches. 


courteous. 


elm. 


bronchitis. 


creek. 


elysium. 


buoy. 


cucumber. 


English. 


cachet. 


cuirass. 


ennui. 


cafe. 


cuisine. 


envelope. 


caisson. 


cupola. 


epoch. 


calf. 


curtail. 


equerry. 


Calliope. 


cynosure. 


equipage. 


camelopard. 


dahlia. 


equitable. 


camphor. 


deaf. 


ere. 


canine. 


debris. 


European. 


caret. 


debut. 


executive. 


catch. 


decisive. 


executor. 


cemetery. 


deficit. 


exhibit 


cerement. 


demonstrate. 


exorable. 





ORTHOGRAPHY. 




expose. 


history. 


laryngeal. 


falcon. 


horse-radish. 


laugh. 


fascia. 


housewife. 


legislature. 


favorite. 


hovel. 


leisure. 


February. 


humble. 


lenient. 


feoff. 


hundred 


lettuce. 


fertile. 


hymeneal. 


liaison. 


film. 


hyperbole. 


lichen. 


finale. 


idea. 


listen. 


finance. 


idiosyncrasy. 


litigious. 


financier. 


illustrate. 


Lutheran. 


flaccid. 


impiously. 


luxury. 


forbade. 


Indian. 


lyceum. 


forehead. 


inertia. 


mademoiselle, 


formidable. 


infecund. 


marital. 


fortnight. 


inquiry. 


maritime. 


fricassee. 


integral. 


Mary. 


frontier. 


interesting. 


mausoleum. 


gallant. 


inventory. 


mayoralty. 


gangrene 


iron. 


memoir. 


gaol. 


irrational. 


menagerie. 


gape. 


irreparable. 


mercantile. 


ghoul. 


isinglass. 


milch. 


governor. 


isolate. 


minute. 


granary. 


Italian. 


mirage. 


gratis. 


italic. 


misogyny. 


grease. 


jalap. 


mistletoe. 


guai'dian. 


joist. 


mobile. 


gum-arabic. 


jovial. 


mongrel. 


handkerchief 


Julia. 


monsieur. 


harem. 


kiln. 


much. 


heard. 


knout. 


museum. 


hearth. 


landau. 


mustache. 


heinous. 


lang syne. 


my. 


helm. 


lapel. 


myself. 



213 



214 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 




nape. 


it. 


rheumatism. 


national. 


poem. 


rise. 


ne'er. 


position. 


romance. 


nephew. 


preface. 


roof. 


new. 


pretext. 


root. 


niche. 


pretty. 


route. 


nuisance. 


privacy. 


routine. 


nuptial. 


produce 


ruffian. 


obligatory. 


profile. 


sacrament. 


oblige. 


progress. 


sacrifice. 


obscenity. 


protege. 


sagacious. 


odeon. 


provost 


said. 


office. 


prussic. 


sapphire. 


often. 


pumpkin. 


saucy. 


only. 


put. 


saunter. 


opponent, 
orchestra. 


quadrille. 


sausage. 


quarrel. 


says. 


orthoepy. 


quay. 


scallop. 


oxide. 


quinine. 


seance. 


palm. 


qui vive. 


seigneurial. 


papier mache. 


quoit. 


sepulcher. 


parabola. 


radish. 


sergeant. 


parent. 


rapine. 


silhouette. 


partner. 


ratio. 


simultaneous, 


partridge. 


rational. 


sirrah. 


patent. 


recess. 


sirup. 


pathos. 


recognize. 


slabber. 


patron. 


regime. 


sleek. 


patronize. 


reparable. 


slough. 


pedestal. 


reputable. 


soirde. 


Penelope. 


resin. 


solder. 


peony. 


respite. 


soot. 


pianoforte 


restaurant. 


sough. 


pincers. 


resume. 


souvenir. 


placard. 


retail. 


squalor. 





ORTHOGRAPHY. 




stalwart. 


the. 


veterinary 


stamp. 


theater. 


violent. 


steelyard. 


their. 


waft. 


strategic. 


them. 


waistcoat. 


suavity. 


therefore. 


wary. 


subtle. 


thereof. 


weapon. 


such. 


tiny. 


wharf. 


suite. 


tortoise. 


whether. 


superfluous. 


toward. 


which. 


supple. 


treble. 


whole. 


sword. 


tribune. 


wiseacre. 


syringe. 


trio. 


with. 


tapis. 


tuberose. 


women. 


tarpaulin. 


Tuesday. 


world. 


tassel 


tune. 


wrestle. 


taunt 


tyranny. 


yacht. 


teat. 


umbilicus. 


yet. 


tedious. 


uncourteous. 


yew. 


telegraphy. 


unheard. 


yonder. 


tenet. 


uninteresting. 


your. 


tepid. 


usurp. 


zenith. 


Terpsichorean. 


varioloid. 


zoology. 


tite-a-tete. 







215 



ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 

The following classification of the consonants is intended 
to facilitate the learner's progress in orthographic pars- 
ing. 

The student should prepare a small chart showing the 
diacritical markings of the vowels ami consonants to use in 
connection with the table given below. 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

Mate, a monosyllable : spelled orthographically m-a-t-e ; 
phonically m-a-t. 



216 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

M is a consonant, subvocal, labial, semi-vowel, antece- 
dent to its vowel a. [ When is m silent ?] 

A is a vowel, long sound, indicated by writing a macron 
over it. 

T is a consonant, aspirate, linguo-dental, mute, conse- 
quent to its vowel a. 

E is a vowel, silent, indicated by drawing a straight 
oblique line across it. [ When is e silent ?] 

TABLE OF CONSONANTS. 

b, subvocal, labial, mute ; silent before m or after t in 
the same syllable, and in the word bdellium. 

c, hard (before a, o, ti, I, r, and k, s, or t final), aspirate, 
palatal, mute, sul)stitute fork. C is silent in czar, vict- 
uals, indict, and the termination scle; as in muscle. 

c, soft (before e, i, or y), aspirate, linguo-dental, semi- 
vowel, substitute for s or z. 

d, subvocal, linguo-dental, mute ; silent in the words 
Wednesday and handkerchief. 

f, aspirate, labial, semivowel ; never silent. 

g, hard (before a, o, a, h, I, r, and sometimes before e, i, 
or y), subvocal, palatal, mute. G is silent before m 
or n final, and when initial followed by n. 

g, soft, (generally before e, i, or y), subvocal, linguo- 
dental, semivowel ; substitute for j. 

h, aspirate, palatal, semivowel ; silent after g initial, a 
vowel in the same syllable, or when preceded by r or t. 

j, subvocal, linguo-dental, semivowel ; never silent. 

k, aspirate, palatal, mute; silent before n or after c in 
the same syllable. 

I, sub vocal, lingual, semivowel ; usually silent before a 
final consonant, and always after a, Avhen followed by/, 
m, k, or V, (except in the word valve). 

m, subvocal, labial, semivowel ; silent before n in the 
same syllable. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 217 

n, subvociil, linguo-nasal, semivowel ; silent when final 

after I or m. 
p, aspirate, labial, mute; silent when initial before ?i, s, 

or t. 
q, aspirate, palatal, mute ; never silent, has the power 

of k, and is always followed by u. 
r, subvocal, lingual, semivowel ; never silent. 
s, aspirate, linguo-dental, semivowel ; silent in the words 

corps, belleslettres, isle, puisne, viscount, and a few others. 

(See answer 77). 
t, aspirate, linguo-dental, mute ; silent before ch, in the 

same syllable, and in the terminations ten and tie. 
V, subvocal, labial, semivowel ; silent in sevennight 

(sennit) only. 
w, subvocal, labial, semivowel ; silent before r in the 

same syllable. 
X, aspirate, palato-dental, semivowel ; never silent, 

equals cs or gs. 
y, subvocal, linguo-palatal, semivowel ; never silent. 
2, subvocal, linguo-dental, semivowel ; silent in rendez- 
vous only. 
th, aspirate, linguo-dental, semivowel. 
th, subvocal, linguo-dental, semivowel. 
ch, aspirate, linguo-dental, semivowel. 
sh, aspirate, linguo-dental, semivowel. 
wh, aspirate, labial, semivowel. 
ng, subvocal, palato-nasal, semivowel. 
ph, aspirate, labial, semivowel, substitute for/ or v. 
g\ aspirate, palatal, mute when a substitute for h. 
gh, aspirate, labial, semivowel when a substitute for/ 



QUESTIONS 
AR IT H NOETIC 



1. Define problem, solution, and demonstration. 

2. The sum and product of two numbers given, how 
find the numbers? 

3. The product and quotient of two numbers given, 
how find the numbers ? 

4. What is a standard unit? A scale ? A radix? 

5. Why are U. S. bonds better investments than indi- 
vidual notes ? 

6. Define direct proportion ; inverse proportion. 

7. What is a power of a number? The third power? 
The first power ? The zero power ? 

8. What relation exists between similar figures as to 
their linear dimensions ? As to their areas ? As to their 
solidities ? 

9. Define a prime number ? Give the largest possible 
prime number. 

10. Give a short method for squaring numbers ending 
in 5. 

11. What are the principles of factoring? 

12. What is the reciprocal of a number ? Give a 
practical illustration. 

18. State the shortest rule for squaring a number 
composed of 9's. 

14. What is the difference between a common, and a 
decimal fraction ? What is a decimal ? 



220 ARITHMETIC. 

15. Give a rule for writing decimals. 

16. What is a point? Aline? A surface? A solid ? 

17. What is the standard unit of weight? How de- 
termined ? 

18 Why does it take 10 feet more of hewn than of 
round timber to make a ton ? 

19. What is meant by the terms plane, plane figure, 
perimeter, and apothegm ? 

20. What is the difference between interest and per- 
centage ? 

21. What is a set of exchange ? 

22. What is meant by re-insurance? What are "short 
rates" ? 

23. What is the difference in reckoning time in simple 
interest and in partial payments ? 

24. What is a legal rate of interest ? What is usury ? 

25. What rate of interest does unpaid annual interest 
bear ? What is the legal rate on debts due the United States? 

26. What is annual interest ? 

27. Which is the more profitable to the discounter, 
notes given for short or for long time ? Why ? 

28. Define a straight line, a curved line, parallel lines, 
concentric circles. 

29. Define prism, cylinder, parallelopiped. 

30. What are the fundamental principles of Arithmetic ? 
Why? 

31. Which mathematical signs take precedence? 

32. Which should be taught first, long or short division ? 
Why ? 

33. What is the unit of a fraction? A fractional unit ? 

34. What is the face of a note? What is the amount? 

35. What is a concrete number? An abstract number? 

36. What is a denominate number ? A simple denom- 
inate number? A compound denominate number? 

37. What is a rule in Arithmetic ? 



ARITHMETIC. 221 

38. Defiue arithmetical analysis. 

39. What is the simple value of a figure ? The local 
value ? 

40. Upon what principles is the Roman notation based ? 

41. Define interest, and give a general formula for com- 
puting it. 

42. What is the difference between true an<l bank dis- 
count? Which is the more equitable ? 

43. Define chord, tangent, and secant. 

44. Name and defiue four kinds of triangle 

45. What is the standard unit of angles ? 

46. What is salvage ? 

47. Can private banks issue their own currency? 

48. Define equated time and focal date. 

49. What is money ? What is the standard unit of 
value ? 

50. What is a mint? Locate three in the United 
States. 

51. Which years are leap-years ? 

52. How find the volume of an irregular solid? 

53. What is meant by the "money of account" of a 
nation ? 

54. What is the standard unit in the Metric System ? 

55. What is the unit of length in the Metric System ? 
Of capacity ? Of weight ? Of solidity ? Of area ? 

56. What is the origin of the sign $ ? 

57. What is a company ? A corporation ? A charter ? 

58. Define a tax, poll tax, inventory, and assessor. 

59. What is the complement of a number ? The sup- 
plement ? 

60. What is a perfect number? Give the largest per- 
fect number that can be written. 

61. What are duodecimals ? 

62. What are the fundamental operations of Arith- 
metic ? 



222 ARITHMETIC. 

63. What is the fundamental synthetic process of Arith- 
metic ? 

64. What is the fundamental analytic process of Arith- 
metic ? 

65. What is the unit of land measure ? What are its 
dimensions ? 

66. What do the characters 1', V, and V represent in 
business transactions ? 

67. What are trade discounts? 

68. What is meant by the terms " long" and " short" 
as used by stock brokers ? 

69. When is a note said to go to protest ? What is a 
protest ? 

70. What is general average ? Jetson ? Flotsam ? 
Ligan ? 

71. What is ratio? What are its divisions ? Its sym- 
bol? 

72. In reckoning time in interest should the day a note 
begins, or the day it matures, or both, be included ? 

73. What do you understand by "the 47th problem 
of Euclid " ? State a practical application of its principles. 

74. Define proportion. What is its symbol? 

75. Define simple, compound, partitive, and conjoined 
proportion. 

76. What is a mean proportional ? What are ho- 
mologous terms ? 

77. What is the sign of cancellation ? 

78. What is the base of computation in brokerage ? 
In commission? 

79. What is the value of t: (pi)? How obtained? 
What is its reciprocal ? 

80. How many degrees in arc of length equal to 
radius? How determined ? 

81. What is a pyramid ? A cone ? The frustum of a 
pyramid or cone ? 



ARITHMETIC. 223 

82. What is an ellipse? Its diameters ? 

83. What is the surface relation between a circum- 
scribed and an inscribed square ? 

84. What is the surface relation between a circum- 
scribed and an inscribed equilateral triangle ? 

85. What is a factor of a number? How find one of 
three equal Victors composing a number? 

86. On wliMt sliould the interest deducted from a draft 
be computed? Why? 

87. What in mathematics is meant by a typical figure ? 

88. What is a sphere ? A spheroid ? 

89. Define medial and distributive proportion. 

90. What are United States bonds? 

91. How many classes of United States bonds? De- 
fine each class. 

92. How are the diflferent issues of United States 
bonds nanied ? 

93. How are registered bonds transferred ? 

94. Name the issues of United States bonds now in 
circulation. 

95. What is a national bank-note ? A greenback ? 

96. When and f )r what })urpose were greenbacks issued ? 

97. Which is preferable, national bank-notes or 
greenbacks ? Why ? 

98. Define arithmetic as a science. As an art. 

99. What is a continued fraction ? 

100. Why invert the divisor in the division of fractions ? 

101. What is the standard unit of time? 

102. Define duty. How many kinds? What is 
a tariff"? 

103. Define surd, radical, and irrational quantity. 

104. What is the radical sign ? AVhat is its origin ? 

105. When and by whom was the decimal point in- 
troduced ? The multiplication table? 

106. What is a draft? Name the parties to a draft. 



224 AKITHMETIC. 

107. Define acceptance, endorsement, and days of grace. 

108. AVhat is arbitration of exchange ? 

109. What are the systems of notation in use? Of 
numeration ? 

110. Write the present year (1885), in the Roman 
notation. 

111. What is a repetend ? A perfect repetend? 

112. How find the true remainder by dividing by 
factors ? 

113. What is the standard unit of length ? 

114. What is the standard unit of surface? 

115. What is the standard unit of volume? Of 
capacity ? 

] 16. How do you cast the 9's or ll's out of a number? 

117. For what purpose do we cast out the 9'3 or ll's? 

118. When are fractions reduced to higher terms? 

119. What things are considered in arithmetical 
progression ? 

120. What things are considered in geometrical 
progression ? 

121. Define evolution and involution. 

122. When is a number divisible by 3 ? By 9 ? 

123. When is a number divisible by 11? By 87? 
By 25 ? 

124. Given the time of sunrise, or sunset, how find the 
length of the day and the night ? 

125. Explain the "Indian method" of determining 
the number of days in any month. 

126. Upon what day of the week will a 30 day note 
fall due ? A 60 day note ? A 90 day note ? 

127. Will an " acceptance " or an "endorsement " writ- 
ten with a pencil hold good in law ? 

128. A boy found a knife and sold it for twenty-five 
cents ; what per cent, did he gain ? 

129. What is a ratio ? A proportion? 



ARITHMETIC. 225 

130. What are the terms of a proportion ? 

131. How many methods of solving problems in pro- 
portion ? Name them. 

132. Find the solidity of the frustum of a cone the 
radii of whose bases are 9 and 5 respectively, altitude 15. 

133. Find the diameter of a sphere whose surface con- 
tains as many square units as there are cubic units in its 
volume. 

134. Give the formulas for interest. 

135. Give the formulas for arithmetical series. 

136. Give the formulas for geometrical series. 

137. Give formula for solving " time problems." 

138 A tree 80 feet hi jh l)reaks at such a distance from 
the ground, that the broken part clinging to the stump, 
strikes the ground 25 feet from the root of the tree ; how 
find the height of the sturaj) ? 

139. A tree 80 feet high breaks at such a distance from 
the ground, that the broken part clinging to the stump, 
strikes the ground 25 feet from the root of the tree : how 
find the length of the part broken off? 



I 



ANS^^^ERS 



QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 



1. (a) A question proposed for solution ; (b) a process 
by which a required result is obtained ; (c) a process of rea- 
soning by which the truth of a proposition is proven. 

2. Extract the square root of the difference between 
the square of the sum and four times the given product, 
and divide by 2 to obtain the greater number. 

3. Divide the product by the quotient, and extract the 
square root of the result, to obtain the less number. 

4. (a) The original unit of weight, measure, or value, 
deposited among the archives of the government, and from 
which all legal standards are copied ; (b) the law of rela- 
tion between the successive orders of units in any system 
of notation ; (c) the arbitrary number expressing the law 
of the scale. 

5. Bonds run for longer periods of time, are better se- 
cured, and are exempt from taxation. (See 97.) 

6. (a) A proportion in which each term increases or 
diminishes, as the one on which it depends increases or di- 
minishes ; (b) a proportion in which each term increases as 
the term upon which it depends diminisJies, or diminishes 
as it increases. 

7. (a) The product of unity as a base, and a certain 
number of factors each equal to the number ; (b) the con- 
tinued product of the base and tliree factors each equal to 



ARITHMETIC. 227 

the number ; (c) the product of the base and one factor ; 
(d) the base (unity) itself 

8. (a) They are proportional ; (b) they are proportional 
to the squares of their like dimensions ; (c) they are pro- 
portional to the cubes of their like dimensions. 

9. (a) It is one that contains no integral factors except 
itself and unity: (b) 2,147,483,647. 

10. Square the right hand figure, and place on the left 
of the result the product of the remaining number by 
itself increased by 1. 

11. (a) Every prime factor of a number is an exact 
divisor of that number. 

(b) The only exact divisors of a number are its prime 
factors, or the product of two or more of them. 

(c) Every number is equal to the product of its prime 
factors. 

(d) A factor of two or more numbers is a factor of their 
sum or difference. 

(e) A factor of a number is a factor of any multiple of 
that number. 

12. (a) Unity divided by that number. 

(b) Inverting the divisor in the division of fractions. 

13. Begin at the left and write one less than the num- 
ber of 9s in the number, one 8, as many ciphers as 9s 
written, and one 1, 

14. A common fraction is one the denominator of 
which may be any number other than 10. 

A decimal fraction is one the denominator of which is 10 
or some product of lO's. 

A common fraction has its denominator expressed ; a 
decimal fraction may or may not have its denominator ex- 
pressed ; if not expressed, it is called simply a decimal. 

15. Write the quantity as a decimal fraction (with the 
denominator expressed), then make as many decimal places 
in the numerator (beginning at the right to point) as there 
are ciphers in the denominator. Thus, jUhs = .0257. 



228 ARITHMETIC. 

16. (a) That whicli has position but not magnitude, 
(b) A magnitude generated by a point in motion, hav- 
ing length only. 

(o) A magnitude generated by a line in motion, having 
length and breadth. 

(d) A magnitude generated by a surface in motion, 
having length, breadth, and thickness. 

17. (a) The Troy pound containing 5,760 grains. 

(b) By taking the weight of 22.7944 cubic inches of 
distilled water at its maximum density, or 22.8157 cubic 
inches at 62° Fahrenheit, the barometer in both cases being 
at 30 inches. 

18. Because an allowance of i is made for waste in 
sawing. 

19. (a) A surface such that any two points within it, 
can be joined by a straight line lying entirely within that 
surface, (b) A limited portion of a plane, (c) The 
boundary of a figure, (d) A perpendicular let fall from 
the center of a polygon upon a side. 

20. The chief difference is that time is a factor of 
interest, and not of percentage. 

21. A bill of exchange drawn triplicate, and so ex- 
pressed that when one of the bills is paid the other two 
become void. 

22. (a) "A contract by which an insurer of property 
obtains indemnity against loss by his insurance from some 
other insurer." (b) Rates charged by companies when 
the time is less than one year. 

23. In simple interest a month is considered 30 days ; 
in partial payments, the actual number of days the 
month contains. 

24. (a) The rate fixed by statute. (b) Interest 
computed at a higher rate than the law allows. 

Is 4% legal in the State of Ohio ? Ls 8% ? Is 9% ? 

25. (a) The legal rate of the State in which the note is 
given, (b) 6 per cent. 



ARITHMETIC 229 

26. It is the simple interest on the principal and 
on any interest which is not paid when due. To collect 
annual interest, the note must bear the words " with an- 
nual interest," or " interest payable annually." 

27. (a) Long notes, (b) Because the discount on all 
notes varies as the time to run, and if it were referred to 
the same principal, the rate of interest would be the same 
on long and on short notes ; but as the amount of discount 
increases, the proceeds or principal diminishes, and the 
rate of interest correspondingly increases. 

28. (a) The shortest distance between two points, or a 
line that does not change its direction, (b) A line chang- 
ing its direction at every point, (c) Lines that are in the 
same plane and equi-distant from each other throughout 
their whole extent, (d) Those that have a common cen- 
ter, or parallel circumferences. 

29. (a) A solid having two parallel polygonal bases, 
and other faces parallelograms, (b.) A prism whose bases 
are bounded by an infinite number of sides, (c) A prism 
whose faces are parallelograms. 

30. Addition and subtraction ; since multiplication is a 
short method of addition, and division is a short method of 
subtraction, the fundamental principles are necessarily 
reduced to the two given above. (See 62.) 

31. ^Multiplication and division ; when these are used 
together they have their particular effects in the exact or- 
der of their occurrence. As "96-^12X4=32". Ray'g 
Higher Arithmetic. 

Other authorities would make 2 the correct result in the 
above, thus giving the sign X precedence over all 
others. 

32. Long division ; because short division is a mental 
performance of the written operations of long division. 

33. (a) The unit which is divided into equal parts, 
(b) One of the equal parts into which a unit is divided. 



230 ARITHMETIC. 

34. (a) The sum for which a note is given. 

(b) The face with the interest. Many authorities call 
"the sum promised to be paid " the face of a note. This 
definition virtually includes both the sum for which a note 
is given and the interest w'hich may accrue thereon. 

35. (a) A number that designates the kind of unit ; 
(b) A number that does not designate the kind of unit. 

36. (a) A concrete number expressing a particular kind 
of quantity, (b) A number composed of units of the same 
denomination, (c) A number composed of units of two 
or more denominations. 

37. A particular description of a process deduced from 
a demonstration. 

38. The process of solving problems by comparing the 
conditions and principles involved, independent of set rules. 

39. (a) The value expressed when standing alone, or 
when occupying unit's place in whole numbers, or the 
extreme right in decimals, (b) The value given a figure 
depending uj^on the position it occupies. Thus, 7 in unit's 
place represents the simple value of the digit, but 7 in 
hundred's place represents its local value, " local " being a 
derivative of " loco " meaning place. 

40. (1) The repetition of a letter repeats its value. 

(2) A letter placed to the left of one of greater value 
is subtracted from it, but placed to the right, is added to it. 

(3) A bar drawn over a letter or number increases its 
value a thousandfold. 

41. (a) Money, or its equivalent, paid for the use of 
anything. 

(b) P X R X T = I. 

42. (a) The interest on the true discount for the given 
time. This interest amounts to considerable when the 
debt is large and the time long. 

(b) True discount. 

43. (a) A straight line connecting the extremities of 



ARITHMETIC. 231 

an arc of a circle, (b) A line which has but one point in 
common with a curve, (c) A Hue which cuts a curve in 
two or more points. 

44. Right angled triangle ; one having an angle of 90 
degrees. Equilateral triangle ; one whose sides are equal. 
Isosceles triangle ; one having two of its sides equal. Sca-« 
lene triangle ; one having no two sides equal. 

45. The right angle, or 90 degrees. 

46. A compensation allowed to parties who voluntarily 
assist in saving a ship or cargo from destruction by fire or 
water. 

47. They can, but not advantageously, owing to the 
heavy tax imposed upon their circulation. 

48. (a) The date at which several debts due at differ- 
ent times may be equitably discharged, (b) The date 
from which time is reckoned in averaging accounts. 

49. (a) Money is the measure of value, (b) The dol- 
lar is the standard unit for the United States and Canada. 

50. (a) Tlie place where money is coined, (b) Phila- 
delphia, New Orleans, and San Francisco. 

The name mint is derived from Moneta, a surname of 
Juno, at whose temple Roman money was first coined. 

51. All years exactly divisible by 4, except those end- 
ing with two ciphers, which must be exactly divisible by 400. 

52. Fill with water a vessel whose capacity is easily 
determined : immerse the solid ; then remove it and com- 
pute the volume of the water displaced, which will equal 
the volume of the solid. 

53. The standard monetary unit of the nation : as, the 
Dollar of the United States, the Pound Sterling of Eng- 
land, the Franc of France, and the Mark of Germany. 

54. The meter, which is equal in length to 39.37043 
inches. 

55. (a) The meter ; (b) the liter ; (c) the 

GRAMME ; (d) THE STERE ; (e) THE ARE. 



232 ARITHMETIC. 

56. The origin of the symbol $, or the United States 
dollar mark, has been ascribed to several sources. By some 
it is supposed to represent the U written upon the S, de- 
noting U. S. (United States). Some think it is a modifi- 
cation of the figure 8, having reference to 8 reals, or 
piece of Eight, as the dollar was formally called ; others, 
that it represents the Pillars of Hercules, which were 
stamped on the Pillar Dollar; and others, still, that it is a 
combination of the initials P. and S., from the Spanish 
Peso Duro, signifying Hard Dollar. As it is used in Port- 
ugal to note the thousand's place, it is probable that it 
originated in that country ; a Mil-reis or thousand reis, is 
written thus, 1$J0). — Crittenden. 

57. (a) An association of two or more persons to trans- 
act business as an individual, (b) An association of per- 
sons authorized by law to transact business as an indi 
vidual. (c) A code of laws granted by the legislature of a 
State, defining the powers of a corporation. 

58. (a) An assessment on persons and property for the 
support of government ; (b) an assessment on male 
citizens of legal age ; (c) a list of the names of taxable 
inhabitants, and the value of each person's property ; (d) 
an officer appointed to estimate the value of taxable pro- 
perty. 

59. (a) The difference between that number and a 
unit of the next higher order ; as the complement of 94 is 
6, or 100 - 94. 

(b) The difference between that number and a unit of 
the next loiver order ; as. the supplement of 105 is 5, or 
105 - 100. 

60. (a) A number, the sum of whose divisors is 
equal to that number ; as 28, the divisors of which are 
1, 2, 4, 7, 14, the sum of which equals 28. 

Is a number a divisor of itself f If so, is the definition 
of a perfect number as given above correct? 
(b) 230,584,390,813,952,128, 



ARITHMETIC. 233 

61. Numbers of the radix of whose scale is 12. 

The subject of "duodecimals" is one of very great im- 
portance, and it is to be regretted that it is not treated of 
in many works on arithmetic, in use in our common 
schools. 

62. Numeration and notation, addition, subtraction, 
multiplication, and division. (See answer 30.) 

63. Addition. 

Because it involves the building up of numbers. 

64. Subtraction. 

Because it involves the separation of numbers. 
65., (a) The acre, (b) It is a square, one side of 
which is 3.16 chains, 1 2. 64 roils, or 209 feet. 

66. They are symbols for 1^, If, If respectively. 
When used with any number these exponents represent 
^, f, I, etc. 

67. They are deductions made from the wholesale price- 
list of goods, and are represented as so many per cent, off: 
as, 25,10, and 5% off. 

68. (a) A broker buys " long," when he buys in anti- 
cipation of a rise : (b) A broker sells "short,'' when he 
sells below the market price, for future delivery, exj)ecting 
to purchase in the interval, at lower figures. 

69. (a) Upon non-payment when due. (b) A written 
notice served by a notary on the indorsers or security of a 
note, advising that the note was not paid when due. 

70. (a) A method of apportioning loss incurred at sea, 
among the owners of ships, freight, and cargo, (b) A term 
applied to goods thrown overboard that sink and are lost, 
(c) A term applied to goods thrown overboard which float 
and may be recovered, (d) A term applied to goods 
thrown overboard, and which are fastened to a buoy. 

71. (a) The measure of the numerical relation of like 
quantities, ^b) Arithmetical and geometrical. Arithmeti- 
cal ratio is the relation expressed by a quotient : geometri- 



234 ARITHMETIC. 

cal ratio is the relation expressed by a difference, (c) 
The single colon(:). The horizontal line separating the 
numerator from the denominator of a fraction is, in 
reality, a symbol of ratio. 

72. The day of maturity only, except in Delaware, Mary- 
land, Missouri, Pennsylvania, and the District of Colum- 
bia, where both the day of date and the day of maturity are 
counted. 

73 (a) That the square constructed on the hypotenuse 
of a right angled triangle, equals the sum of the squares 
constructed on the base and the perpendicular. 

(b) In finding the length of rafters when the width of 
a building and the pitch of roof are given. Or In " squar- 
ing the foundation " of buildings. 

74. (a) An equality of ratios, (b) The double colon 
( : : ). The sign, =, is also frequently used. 

75. (a) A proportion composed of simple ratios ; it is 
sometimes called "the single eule of three." (b) A pro- 
portion composed of one or more compound ratios ; it is 
sometimes called " the double rule of three." 

(c) The process of separating a number into parts hav- 
ing a given ratio to each other, (d) The process of ar- 
ranging quantities of equal value in the form of an equa- 
tion, making each consequent of the same kind, the next 
antecedent : this is also called the " chain rule of arbitra- 
tion." 

76. (a) A term the square of which equals the product 
of the extremes: as, 12:6:3. (b) Terms having the same 
relative values : as in a proportion, the antecedents, or 
the consequents. 

77. A short straight line drawn obliquely across a num- 
ber. 

78. (a) The par value of stock, (b) The amount of 
the sale or purchase. 

79. (a) 3.1416 nearly : or V, nearly. 



ARITHMETIC. 235 

(b) By computing the perimeters of an inscribed and a 
circumscribed polygon of six sides ; from this data the 
perimeters of polygons of double that number of sides, and 
so on, until the difference between the perimeters is not 
appreciable in ordinary mathematical computations, the 
polygons nearly coinciding with a circle. 

(c) .3183. 

80. (a) 57.2957. (b) By dividing 180 degrees by tt. 

81. (a) A solid with one base and a finite number of 
triangular faces having a common vertex. 

(b) A solid with one base and an infinite number of 
triangular faces having a common vertex. 

(c) The solid remaining after cutting off a segment with 
a plane parallel to the base. 

82. (a) A surface generated by passing a plane 
obliquely through the sides of a cylinder. 

(b) Transverse and conjugate. 

83. The circumscribed is twice the inscribed in area. 

84. The circumscribed is four times the inscribed in 
area. 

85. (a) An integral divisor of a number, (b) By ex- 
tracting the cube root of the number. 

86. On the face, because the purchaser is deprived of 
that amount of money during the time the draft has to 
run. 

87. A figure used in determining the relation of the 
parts to each other in similar figures ; the dimensions used 
as the base of comparison being unity. Thus the relation 
of a side to a diagonal of a square, is found from a square 
whose side is unity. 

88. (a) A solid generated by the revolution of a semi- 
circle upon its diameter as an axis, (b) A solid generated 
by the revolution of a semi-ellipse upon its diameter as an 
axis. 

89. (a) The process of finding the mean or average 



236 ARITHMETIC. 

value of a mixture, or the process of finding the propor- 
tion of articles which will form a mixture at a certain 
average value. It is sometimes called alligation. 

(1)) It is the process of dividing a number, or quantity, 
into parts which are proportional to given nundiers. It is 
also called j^cit'titive proportion or partnership. 

90. They are notes, or promises to pay, issued l)y the 
Government, and secured by the sacredness with which we 
view our deserving credit for financial integrity. 

91. (a) Two; coupon, and registered. (b) Bonds 
transferable by delivery, with interest certificates attached, 
called coupons, (c) Bonds without interest certificates at- 
tached, bearing the name of the owner, and transferable 
by assignment acknowledged before the president or cashier 
of a national bank, accompanied with the seal of the bank. 

92. By the date of issue, time to run, and the rate of 
interest which they bear. 

93. The currency sixes and the continued sixes, by assign- 
ment acknowledged before a Notary Public ; these and all 
others are also transferable by assignment acknowledged 
before the president or cashier of a national bank. (See 91.) 

94. Currency sixes, 6 per cent, semi - annually, in 
currency. 

Continued sixes of '81, 3^ per cent, semi-annually, in 
coin. 

Continued fives of '81, 3^ per cent, quarterly, in coin. 
Four-and-a-half per-cents, 4i per cent, quarterly, in coin. 
Four-per-cents, 4 per cent, quarterly, in coin. 

95. (a) A printed note bearing the signatures of the 
president and cashier of a national bank, promising to pay 
to the bearer, on demand, a sum of money specified there- 
on, (b) A non-taxable, legal tender note issued by the 
Government, at the beginning of the civil war, and so 
called from the back of the note being stamped in green 
ink, to prevent counterfeiting. 



ARITHMETIC. 237 

96. (a) At the beginning of the civil war ; (b) to carry 
on the 0])erati()ns of the Government, there not being at 
that time sufhcieutcoin with whicli to do 80. 

97. (a) Greenbacks ; (h) Tliey are non-taxabk% while 
national bank notes are taxable. 

98. (a) Arithmetic as a science treats of the nature and 
properties of number, (b) As an art it teaches the various 
methods of computing numbers, and of applying a knowl- 
edge of such methods to useful and practical purposes. 
— Sadler. 

99. A continued fraction is a fraction whose numerator 
is 1, and denominator an integer plus a fraction whose 
numerator is also 1, and denominator a similar fraction, 
and so on. — Brooks. 

A continued fraction is one whose denominator is con- 
tinued by being itself a mixed number, anil the denom- 
inator of the fractional part again continued as before, and 
so on. — Hay. 

100. To indicate the number of times the divisor is 
contained into unity; or, to find the reciprocal of the 
divisor. 

101. The day of twenty -four hours. 

102. (a) Duty is a tax laid by the Government 
on imports. 

(b) Two : ad valorevi and specific, (c) A schedule of 
duties. 

103. They are analogous terms, meaning a quantity 
whose root cannot be extracted. 

104. (a) It is the sign V , used to indicate the 
extraction of a root, (b) It is a modified form of R, the 
initial letter of the word root. 

105. (a) In 1602, by Lord John Napier, an English 
mathematician, (b) Pythagoras, the eminent Grecian 
philosopher. 

106. (a) A draft is a domestic bill of exchange ; or, 



238 ARITHMETIC. 

it is a written order by one person to another to pay a 
specified sum of money to a third party named in the 
writing, or to his order, or bearer, (b) The drawer or 
maker of the draft, the drawee or the party on whom the 
draft is drawn, and the payee or the party in whose favor 
the draft is drawn. 

107. (a) When the word " accepted" is written across 
the face of a draft by the drawee, with date and signature, 
the bill is called an acceptance, (b) An order of transfer 
written on the back of a draft by the payee, (c) The 
number of days allowed by law for the payment of drafts, 
notes, etc., after they have become nominally due. 

108. The process of finding the value of a bill of ex- 
change which passes through one or more intermediate 
points. 

109. (a) The Arabic, or with figures ; the Roman, or 
with letters; the word-method, or in common language, 
(b) The French, with three figures in a period ; the En- 
glish, with six figures in a period. 

110. MDCCCLXXXV. 

111. (a) The figure or set of figures repeated in a cir- 
culating decimal, (b) It is a repetend formed of as many 
decimal figures as the number of units, less 1, in the de- 
nominator of the fraction producing it. 

112. By multiplying each partial remainder, except 
the first, by all the preceding divisors, and then adding 
these products to the first remainder. 

113. The yard, which is identical with the Imperial 
yard of Great Britain, a copy of which was obtained in 
1856, and deposited at Washington. Duplicates of this 
are deposited at each State Capital. 

The Imperial yard was determined by taking 360,000 parts 
of a pendulum divided into 391,393 equal parts, which vi- 
brated seconds in a vacuum at the sea level, in the lati- 
tude of London. 



ARITHMETIC. 239 

114. The square yard. (See 113.) 

115. The cubic yard, for ordinary measurements ; the 
cord of 128 cubic feet, for wood ; and the perch of 24.75 
cubic feet, for stone, (b) The wine gallon of 231 cubic 
inches, for liquid measure ; the Winchester bushel of 
2150.42 cubic inches, for dry measure. 

116. Divide the sum of the digits of the number by 9, 
or 11, and find the excess. 

117. To prove the operations of addition, subtraction, 
multiplication, and division. 

118. When they are changed to a common denomina- ' 

tor. 

119. The first term, the last term, the number of 
terms, the common difference, and the sum of the terms. 

120. The first terra, the last term, the number of 
terms, the common ratio, and the sum of the terms. 

121. (a) The process of extracting roots of numbers: 
(b) The process of finding the powers of numbers. 

122. (a) When the sum of its digits is divisible by 3 : 

(b) When the sum of its digits is divisible by 9. 

123. (a) When the sum of the digits in the odd orders 
equals the sum of the digits in the even orders : (b) When 
it consists of three, or some 7nultiple of three, equal digits : 

(c) When its two right hand digits are divisible by 25. 

124. The length of the day is equal to twenty-four 
hours minus twice the time of the sun's rising. 

The length of night is equal to twice the time of the 
sun's rising ; or, 

The length of the day is equal to the time of sunset 
plus twelve hours, minus the time of sunrise. 

125. Close the hand ; begin on the knuckle of the 
index finger and call it January, the depression following, 
February, the second knuckle, March, and so on, each 
knuckle representing a month of thirty-one days, and each 
depression a month of thirty days, except February. 



240 ARITHMETIC. 

126. (a) Five days later than the day of the week on 
which the note was given : (b) On the savie diiy of the 
week on which the note was given : (c) Two days hiter 
than the day of the week on which the note was given. 

127. Yes. These are written in ink simply to prevent 
erasures They may also be written on any part of a note 
or draft, or on paper attached to these instruments. 

128. Infinity; because as the cost is diminished, the 
selling price remaining fixed, the rate of gain is propor- 
tionally increased ; therefore, when the cost becomes in- 
finitely small, or an infinitesimal, the rate of gain becomes 
infinitely large, or infinity. 

129. (a) The relation existing between like quantities, 
expressed by their quotient or by their difference, (b) An 
etjuality of ratios. 

130. The means and the extremes. 

131. (a) Three; Compound Proportion, Cause and 
Effect, and " Short Analysis." 

132. 9^ X ;r = 'SItt = area of lower base. 
5'^ X TT := 257r = area of upper base. 

V 9^ X 5' X n' =457r area of mean base. 

(8l7rj-_257rj-4^) >< ^5 ^ 75571= 2371.9 cubic units. 
3 

(See 79). 

133. By rule, diam.'' X tt = equal surface of sphere. 
By rule, diam.^ X - --= solidity of sphere. 

D 

Tl 

Diam.'' X n := diam.^ X n, by condition of problem. 

Diam. X 77 = tt, by transposition and cancellation. 

Diam. = 6, by reducing equation. 

. • . 6 (units) is the diameter of the re(iuired sphere. 

(See 79.) 



ARITHMETIC. 241 

134. (1) I = P X R X T. 
(2) P = 




(n — 1) d. 



(b) S = — -■ , or for descending series, , 

137. Let 100% of a space = distance traveled by 
hour hand. 

Let 1200% of a space = distance traveled by minute 
hand. 

Let 1 100% of a space = distance gained by minute hand. 

138. Rule : Square height of the tree, square dis- 
tance from the root of the tree to where the part falling 
strikes the ground ; find their difference, and divide it by 
tAvice the height of the tree ; the quotient will be the 
height of the stump. 

139. Rule: Square height of the tree, square dis- 
tance from its root to where the part falling strikes the 
ground ; find their sum, and divide by tw^ice the height of 
the tree ; the quotient will equal the length of the part 
falling. 



242 ARITHMETIC. 

PRACTICAL RULES IN ARITHMETIC. 

MENSURATION. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE. 

When a Side is Given : Side squared multiplied by .^33, 
When Altitude is Given : Divide the square of the alti- 
tude by 1.732. 

TO FIND THE ALTITUDE OF AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE. 

When a Side is Given : Multiply given side by .866. 
When the area is Given : Multiply the area by 1.732, 
and extract the square root of the product. 

TO FIND THE SIDE OF AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE. 

When the Altitude is Given : Divide the altitude by 
.866. 

When the area is Given : Divide the area by .1^33, and 
extract the square root of the quotient. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF A SCALENE TRIANGLE. 

When the three Sides abb Given : From half the sum 
of the three sides subtract each side separately ; multiply 
together the half sum and the three remainders, and extract 
the square root of the product. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF A TRAPEZOID. 

Multiply half the sum of the parallel sides by the alti- 
tude. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF A TRAPEZIUM. 

Multiply the diagonal by half the sum of the two per- 
pendiculars falling upon it from the opposite angles. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF A PARALLELOGRAM, SQUARK, 
RECTANGLE, RHOMBUS. 

Multiply the length by the perpendicular height. 

TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE. 

Radius given : Multiply radius by 2 tt. (See Arth. ques- 
tion 79.) 

Diameter given : Multiply diameter by tt. 



ARITHMETIC. 243 

Area given : Extract the square root of Jf.'^ times the 
area. 

TO FIND THE RADIUS OF A CIRCLE. 

Circumference given : Divide circumference by 2 tt, or, 
multiply the circumference by .1591. 

Area given : Divide the area by t: and extract square 
root of the quotient. 

TO FIND THE DIAMETER OF A CIRCLE. 

Circumference given : Divide circumference by tt. 
Area given : Divide area by ^ tt and extract the square 
root of the quotient. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF A CIRCLE. 

Radius given : Multiply the square of the radius by it. 

Circumference given : Divide the square of the circum- 
ference by Jf, TT, or, the square of half the circumference by 
^ ; or, multiply the square of half the circumference by 
.3188. 

Radius and Circumference given : Multiply radiiis by 
half the circumference. 

TO FIND THE SIDE OF A SQUARE EQUAL TO A GIVEN CIRCLE. 

Multiply the diameter by .8862, or, one-half the square 
root ofTi ; or, multiply the circumference by .2821. 

TO FIND THE DIAMETER OF A CIRCLE EQUAL TO A GIVEN SQUARE. 

Multiply the side of the given square by 1.1283. 

TO FIND THE SIDE OF AN INSCRIBED SQUARE. 

Diameter of Circle given : Multiply diameter by .7071. 
Circumference given : Multiply circumference by .2251. 
Area given : Multiply the area by .6366. 

TO find area of an inscribed square. 

Radius given : Multiply the square of the radius by 2. 

TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE FROM AN INSCRIBED SQUARE. 

Dividfi the side of the given square by .2251. 



244 ARITHMETIC. 

TO FIND THE SIDE OF THE LARGEST INSCRIBED EQUILATERAL 
TRIANGLE. 

Multiply the diameter by .866. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF AN INSCRIBED EQUILATERAL 
TRIANGLE. 

Area of circle given : Jfulf/'ply are<( of circle by .Jf.138. 
Radius given : Multiply the square of the radius by 

1.299. 

TO FIND THE DIAMETER OF THE THREE LARGEST EQUAL 

CIRCLES THAT CAN BE INSCRIBED WITHIN A 

GIVEN CIRCLE. 

Divide the diameter of the given circle by 2.155. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF AN ELLIPSE. 

Multiply the product of the conjiigate and transverse 
diameters \ tt, or, .7854.. 

TO FIND AREA OF A SECTOR OF A CIRCLE. 

Take such a part of the area of the circle as the arc 
is of its circumference. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF A SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE. 

Find the difference between the area of a sector having 
the same arc as the segment of the circle, and the area of 
a triangle form,ed by the chord of the segment and the 
radii of the sector. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF A SEGMENT OF AN ELLIPSE. 

Find the corresponding segment of the circle described 
upon the same axis to which the base (f the segment is per- 
pendicular ; then as this axis is to the other axis, so is the 
circular segment to the elliptical segment. 

TO FIND CIRCUMSCRIBED SQUARE FROM INSCRIBED SQUARE. 

Multiply the inscribed square by 2. 

TO FIND CIRCUMSCRIBED EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE FROM 
INSCRIBED EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE. 

Multiply the area of the inscribed triangle by If,. 



ARITHMETIC. 245 

TO FIND THE AREA OF ANY TRIANGLE. 

Multiply the perimeter of the triangle by one-half the 
radius of an inscribed circle. 

TO FIND THE AREA OF ANY REGULAR POLYGON. 

Multiply the perimeter by one-half the apothegm. 

TO FIND THE LENGTH OF AN ARC OF A CIRCLE. 

As 180 is to the number <f degrees in the arc, so is tt 
times the radius to the length of the arc. 

TO FIND THE SURFACE OF A CUBE. 

Multiply the s(2uare of the side by 6. 

TO FIND THE SURFACE OF A SPHERE. 

Multiply the square of the radius by 4 7^ ', or, multiply 
the square of the diameter by -r: \ or, muUijily the diame- 
ter by the circumference. 

TO FIND THE SURFACE OF A SPHEROID. 

3fultiply one sixth of the square of the revolving axis 
by the product of n and the fixed axis. 

TO FIND THE SURFACE OF A FRUSTUM OF A PYRAMID 
OR CONE. 

To the areas of the two ends add one-half the product 
of the slant height and the sum of the circumferences of 
the bases. 

TO FIND THE SOLIDITY OF A SPHERE. ' 

Multiply the cube of the diameter by .5236. 

TO FIND THE SIDE OF THE LARGEST CUBE THAT CAN BE CUT 
FROM A SPHERE. 

Diameter Given : Multiply the diameter by .5773. 

TO FIND THE DIAGONAL OF A CUBE. 

Multiply the side of the given cube by 1.732. 

TO FIND THE DIAGONAL OF ANY RECTANGULAR SOLID. 

Square each of the three dimensions and extract the 
square root of their sum. 

TO FIND THE SOLIDITY OF ANY IRREGULAR BODY. 
(See questiou 5:1) 

Immerse the body in a vessel full of water, and measure 
the quantity of water displaced. 



246 ARITHMETIC. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

TO FIND TWO NUMBERS WHEN THEIR SUM AND DIFFERENCE 
ARE GIVEN. 

Add one-half their sum to one-half their difference for 
the larger number, and take one-half their difference from 
one-half their sum for the smaller. 

TO FIND TWO NUMBERS WHEN THEIR SUM AND QUOTIENT 

ARE GIVEN. 

Divide the sum by the quotient 2>lus 1, tvill give the 
smaller number. 

TO FIND TWO NUMBERS WHEN THEIR DIFFERENCE AND 
QUOTIENT ARE GIVEN. 

Divide the difference by quotient less i, for the smaller 
number. 

TO FIND THE NUMBER OF BUSHELS OF CORN IN THE EAR IN 
ANY REGULAR VESSEL. 

Multiply the contents in cubic feet by .4. 

For shelled corn or wheat, multiply contents by .8. 



QUESTIONS 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 



1. What is government? 

2. What does civil government embrace ? 

3. What is the earliest form of government ? 

4. Name the most common forms of government. 

5. What is a theocracy ? An aristocracy ? A despotism ? 

6. What is a democracy ? A republic ? 

7. Name the three kinds of colonial governments. 

8. What were the Articles of Confederation ? 

9. When was our present form of government organ- 
ized ? 

10. What is the fundamental law of the land ? 

11. What is the Federal Constitution ? 

12. How was it adopted ? When ? 

13. Name the departments of the Federal government. 

14. What is the legislative department ? 

15. How is it divided ? 

16. What are the necessary qualifications for a Repre. 
sentative ? 

17. How are Representatives chosen? 

18. For how long a term are Representatives chosen ? 

19. What salary does a Representative receive? By 
whom paid ? 

20. What are the necessary qualifications for Senator ? 

21. How are Senators chosen ? 

22. For how long a term are Senators chosen ? 



248 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

23. What salary does a Senator receive ? By whom 
paid ? 

24. Who is the presiding officer of the House? How 
chosen ? 

25. Who is the presiding officer of the Senate ? How 
chosen ? 

26. What is meant hy President pro tern. ? 

27. AVhat sole power is exercised by the House ? 

28. VV^hat sole power is exercised by the Senate? 

29. Why are Senators chosen for a longer period than 
Representatives ? 

30. Upon what does the number of Senators depend ? 

31. Upon what does the number of Representatives 

depend ? 

32. Must a Representative be an inhabitant of the 
District which he is chosen to represent ? 

33. May a Senator change his residence to another 
State during his term of office ? 

34. Are the Territories represented in Congress ? 

35. Are Representatives and Senators eligible to 
State or Federal offices during their terms of service ? 

36. What officers are chosen by the House of 
Representatives ? 

■ 37. What officers are chosen by the Senate ? 

38. When has the President of the Senate a vote ? 

39. Has the Speaker of the House a vote in that body? 

40. Has the President j/ro tempore of the Senate a vote? 

41. What is the salary of the President pro tern, while 
acting as President of the Senate ? 

42. Under what circumstances would the Speaker of 
the House become President ? 

43. When does the Senate assume judicial functions? 

44. Who is the presiding officer of the Senate during 
the impeachment trial of the President of the United 
States ? 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 249 

45. Who are subject to impeachment by the House of 
Representatives ? 

46. What judgment can the Senate declare against the 
President in case of his impeachment? 

47. Are persons removed from office by impeachment 
subject to prosecution under the common law ? 

48. Is the President deprived of his official powers 
during his impeachment trial ? 

49. Which is the more select body of statesmen as a 
whole, the House or the Senate ? Why ? 

50. For how long a term is a Representative elected 
who is chosen to fill a seat made vacant by death, resigna- 
tion, or removal of a member ? 

51. What priviliges have members of Congress as to 
arrest ? As to liberty of speech ? 

52. What bills shall originate in the House? Why? 

53. Name all the ways in which a bill, having passed 
both Houses, may become a law. 

54. Why was the power to regulate commerce given 
Congress ? 

55. Why was Congress given power to borrow money? 

56. In how many, and in what ways, may the general 
Government raise taxes ? 

57. Can Congress lay an export duty ? Why ? 

58. What are retaliatory duties ? 

59. From what source does most of the national i 
revenue now come ? 

60. What is Protection ? Free Trade ? 

61. What is a citizen? An alien ? An elector ? 

62. How may an alien become a citizen of the United 
States ? 

63. Who appoints the times, places, and manner of 
holding elections for Representatives and Senators? 

64. Wliat power is given Congress in the matter of 
elections for members of that body ? 



250 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

65. How ofteu shall Congress assemble ? At what time? 

66. When a vacancy occurs in the representation of any 
State, how is it to be filled ? 

67. Who are to determine the right of any person to a 
seat in Congress ? 

68. Can Congress compel the attendance of absent 
members ? 

69. Has Congress the power to expel members for dis- 
orderly behavior ? 

70. When shall the yeas and nays be called ? What are 
the other methods of voting ? 

71. Can either House adjourn without the consent of 
the other? 

72 What powers has Congress as to coinage ? As to 
weights and measures? 

73. By what authority are post-offices and post-roads 
established ? 

74. Name five powers granted Congress. 

75. Who has the power to call out the militia? 

76. What are letters of marque ? What is a bill of at- 
tainder ? 

77. What is the writ of habeas corpus ? When may it 
be suspended ? 

78. Can a State issue letters of marque ? Why ? 

79. How does Congress protect authors and inventors? 

80. Why is Congress given exclusive legislative con- 
trol over the District of Columbia ? 

81. For what purposes may Congress authorize the 
President to call out the militia? 

82. Has Congress, or the States, control of the militia ? 

83. What is an ex post facto law ? 

84. Who has control of the revenues of the government? 

85. What are Congressional appropriations? 

86. What is a legal tender ? 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 251 

87. What is the highest judicial authority of the na- 
tion ? 

88. Name five dates at which direct taxes have been 
laid by Congress. 

89. When was the first case of indirect taxation, other 
than duties on imports ? 

90. When did Congress first lay an income tax ? 

91. Are the children of citizens of the United Stf-tes, 
born in a foreign country, aliens ? 

92. Are the children of persons duly naturalized, who 
were under twenty-one at the date of sucli naturalization, 
citizens ? 

93. Can an alien, with whose native country the 
United States is at war, become a citizen during that time? 

94. Can a naturalized citizen become President or Vice- 
President of the United States ? 

95. What are ' ' bills of credit " ? 

96. Who are Presidential Electors ? How chosen ? 

97. When, where, and by whom are the electoral 
votes counted ? 

98. What are the qualifications for President ? For 
Vice-President? 

99. What salary does the President receive ? The Vice- 
President ? 

100. What powers are granted the President by the 
Constitution ? 

101. What is the compass of the pardoning power of 
the President ? 

102. Is the power of appointment absolute with the 
President ? 

103. What is the Civil Service ? 

104. When does the President exercise a legislative 
iiinction ? 

105. How long would the President pro tempore, or the 



252 ('IVIL GOVERNMENT. 

Speaker of the House serve, should either succeed to the 
Presidency ? 

106. When are the inauguration ceremonies held, and 
by whom is the oath of office administered to the President ? 

107. What officers constitute the President's Cabinet? 

108. What is meant by the Senate going into Execu- 
tive session ? 

109. What class of Postmasters is appointed by the 
President ' By the Postmaster-General ? 

110. The President can make appointments only by and 
with the advice and consent of the Senate : can he make 
removals from office without the advice and consent of the 
Senate ? 

111. What is the duty of the President in case the 
Senate takes no action upon a nomination made by him ? 

112. Can the President convene either House alone ? 

113. Of what does the Judiciary of the United States 
consist ? 

114. Of what does the Supreme Court consist ? 

115. What offices under our Government may be held 
for life ? 

116. Who are United States Marshals? 

117. What is the extent of the powers of the Supreme 
Court ? 

118. What is said of trials by jury ? 

119. What is treason ? What is piracy ? 

120. What form of government does the Constitution 
guarantee to every State ? 

121. How may the Constitution be amended? 

122. State the Thirteenth Amendment. When passed? 

123. State the Fifteenth Amendment. When ratified ? 

124. What is the law as regards the quartering of sol- 
diers among the people in time of peace ? 

125. How may a new State be admitted into the Union? 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 253 

12C. Can a person charged with crime be compelled to 
be a witness against himself? 

127. Can a person charged with crime he taken from 
one State into another ? 

128 What rights are given the people in the Fourth 
Amendment ? 

129. Wliat privilege is given the States in the Second 
Amendment ? 



ANSWERS 



QUESTIONS ON CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 



1. In its political significance, the power by which the 
inhabitants of a State are ruled, and the manner in which 
that power is exercised. 

2. The object, origin, nature, and forms of govern- 
ment, the character of laws, and the means and manner of 
their administration. 

3. The patriarchal. 

4. Monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. 

5. (a) A form of government in which the ruler acts 
under the immediate direction of God. 

(b) A form of hereditary government in which per- 
sons of rank and wealth exercise the chief authority of 
state. 

(c) An absolute monarchy, or a government ruled liy 
one person clothed with despotic powers. 

6. (a) A form of government in which the people 
make and execute the laws. 

(b) A representative democracy. That is, the power 
to make and execute the laws is exercised by representa- 
tives chosen by the people, instead of the whole mass of 
the people participating as in a pure democracy. 

7. Provincial or royal, proprietary, and charter. 

8. The body of laws under which the United Colonies 
acted previous to the adoption of the Federal Constitu- 
tion. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 256 

9. The present form of government went into opera- 
tion at the beginning of Washington's Administration, 
April 30, 1789. 

10. The Federal Constitution. 

11 The written fundamental law of the United 
States. 

12. (a) By Representatives of the *Thirteen Colonies 
in convention assembled, and by being afterwards ratified 
by the people of the colonies, (b) By nine of the colo- 
nies as early as June 21, 1788, New Hampshire being 
the ninth. 

13. Legislative, Judicial, and Executive. 

14. The law-making body, or Congress. 

15. Into two branches, known as the House of Repre- 
sentatives, and the Senate. 

16. Twenty-five years of age, seven years a citizen of 
the United States, and an inhabitant of the State in which 
chosen, at the time of his election. 

17. Directly by the people. 

18. For a term of two years. 

19. (a) $5,000, mileage (20 cents per mile), and sta- 
tionery to the amount of $125. (b) By the United States 
government. 

20. Thirty years of age, nine years a citizen of the 
United States, and an inhabitant of the State for which 
chosen, at the time of his election. 

21. By the Legislatures of the States. 

22. For a term of six years. 

23. (a) $5,000, mileage (20 cents per mile), and sta- 
tionery to the amount of $125 : each Senator has the right 
to appoint for his assistance a secretary whose salary, $1 ,000, 
is paid by the Government, (b) By the United States 
government. 



*Ehode Island sent no delegates to the Constitutional Convention. 



256 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

24. A member of the House chosen by that body, and 
who is called the Speaker of the House. 

25. (a) The Vice-President of the United States, and 
called the President of the Senate, (b) By Electors 
chosen .by the States. 

26. A member of the Senate, chosen by that body to 
act as its pre iding officer in the case of death, absence, or 
removal of the Vice-President, or on the latter's becoming 
President in the case of removal, disability, or death of 
the President of the United States. 

27. The House of Representatives exercises the sole 
power of imjjeachment. 

28. The sole power to try all cases of impeachment. 

29. (I) To make the Senate a permanent body, as by 
the classification of Senators, the terms of service of but 
one-third of the members can expire at any one period. 

(2) To obtain a body of wiser and more experienced 
men than those constituting the House, since when a rep- 
resentative is to be chosen for a long term, more care will 
be exercised in the selection ; 

(3) "To check too frequent changes in the laws ;" 

(4) "To obtain independence of popular impulses." 

30. Upon the number of States, two Senators being 
chosen by each State. 

31. Upon the number of inhabitants of the several 
States. Congress determines from each census the ratio of 
representation. 

32. A citizen having the necessary qualifications as to 
age, etc, may l)e chosen a Representative of any Congress- 
ional District in the State of which he is an inhabitant, 
though for obvious reasons, Representatives are generally 
residents of the particular Districts in which they are 
elected. 

33. There is nothing to prevent his doing so, since he 
is a representative of all the States, and not of a particu- 
lar State. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 257 

34. Each organized Territory is allowed by law to send 
one delegate to Congress, who may participate in the dis- 
cussions, but cannot vote. 

35. "No Senator or Representative shall, during the 
time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil 
office under the authority of the United States which shall 
have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have 
been increased, during such time ; and no person holding 
any office under the United States shall be a member of 
either House during his continuance in office." 

36. The S})eaker, a Clerk, Sergeant-at-Arms, Door- 
keeper, Postmaster, and Chaplain. 

37. A Secretary, Chief Clerk, Executive Clerk, 
Sergeant-at-Arms, Doorkeeper, and Chaplain. 

38. The Vice-President of the United States while 
acting as President of the Senate, has a vote only when the 
vote of the Senate is a tie. 

39. " He is required to vote in case of ballot, and he 
may vote on other occasions." 

40. He has the same rights as other members of the 
Senate, and may vote on all measures lirought before that 
body. He is simply a member of the Senate acting for the 
time as presiding officer. 

41. He receives the salary of Vice-President. 

42. In the case ■,)f death or disability of both the Presi- 
dent and Vice-President, and if there were no President 
jjro tempore, the Speaker of the House would act as Presi- 
dent. 

43. When it sits as a Court, as in the case of trials of 
impeachment. 

44. When the President is impeached, the Chief Jus- 
tice presides, but in other cases of impeachment, the Vice- 
President. The reason for the Chief Justice presiding 
when the President is on trial is apparent, as the Vice- 
President would become President, should the latter be re- 
moved from office. 



258 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

45. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers 
acting under the United States government, but not those 
acting under the control of any State. The term "civil" 
excludes officers of the Army and Navy. 

46. "Judgment shall not extend further than to re- 
moval from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy 
an office of honor, trust, or profit, under the United 
States." 

47. They are. 

48. He is not. In 1868 during tne progress of the im- 
peachment trial of President Johnson, he continued to 
discharge the duties of his office. 

49. (a) The Senate. 

The object of the framers of the Constitution in dividing 
the legislative department of our government into two 
branches, seems to be for the purpose of making the Senate 
a restrictive power over the House of Representatives. 
Influences which might impel the direct representatives 
of the people to pass harmful or unjust laws, would not 
be likely to influence a body of men who represent the 
wisdom, wealth, and respectability of the States. 

(b) A popular author on civil government says : The 
causes which make the Senate the more select body are 
four in number : (I) It has fewer members. (2) They are 
elected by the State legislatures instead of by the people. 
(3) The term of office is longer. (4) The qualifications 
are higher. 

50. For the unexpired portion of that member's term. 

51. (a) ' ' They shall in all cases except treason, felony, 
and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during 
their attendance at the session of their repsective Houses, 
and in going to and returning from the same ; (b) and for 
any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be 
questioned in any other place." This last clause means 
they shall not be held to answer before a court of justice 
for any utterances in debate. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 259 

52. (a) "All bills for raising revenue shall originate in 
the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose, 
or concur with amendments, as on other bills." 

The phrase " for raisiug revenue " is limited in meaning 
to levying taxes, either direct or indirect, (b) The members 
of the House are the direct representatives of the people, 
and as such, are choseu by the people to protect their in- 
terests and to promote their welfare in general. Since the 
people bear the burden of the taxes, they have a right to 
say through their Representatives when, to what amount, 
and for what purpose, taxes shall be levied. 

53. (a) By receiving the signature of the President ; 
(b) By the President's failure to return it within ten days 
(Sundays excepted) after its reception by him : (c) By be- 
ing passed by a two-thirds vote of each House, over the 
President's veto. 

54. (a) " Because it was a matter of general and uni- 
versal interest : (b) And, because of the benefits that would 
flow from uniformity. 

Under the Articles of Confederation the right to regu- 
late commerce was with the States individually. The com- 
mercial interests of no two States being the same, divers 
regulations existed as to matters of trade, which caused 
much annoyance in commercial affairs. Among the first 
subjects discussed in the convention that framed the Con- 
stitution, was the matter of commerce, and it was agreed 
by that body that Congress should have power to reg- 
ulate trade, as is stated in the Constitution. 

55. Since Congress was given power " to raise reve- 
nue," "to regulate commerce," and " to declare war," it 
necessarily followed that it should have power to borrow 
money. Every nation is likely to incur debts which 
cannot be paid with its ordinary revenues, and then 
it becomes necessary to borrow on the nation's credit. 
The usual way of doing this is to issue interest bearing 
bonds. 



260 CIViL GOVERNMENT. 

56. In three ways : (a) By direct levies, as poll or 
property tax ; (b) by taxiug imports ; (c) by taxing home 
products. The latter tax is called Internal Revenues, and 
is laid chiefly on distilled liquors, manufactured tobacco, 
etc. 

57. No export duties can be laid, because it would be 
impossible to lay such taxes so as to bear e«iually on all 
the States; this is obvious, when we reflect that no two 
States ever export exactly the same products. 

58. They are special taxes laid by the Government 
upon goods imported from foreign countries into our own, 
in retaliation for high duties imposed by those countries 
upon our exports. 

59. Most of the revenue of the Government at pres- 
ent comes from duties on imports. 

60. (a) It is the policy of laying high duties on cer- 
tain classes of foreign goods shipped into our country, in 
order that like home products may be encouraged and 
protected. 

(b) It is the i)olicy opposed to 'protection, and argues 
that, while protection fosters manufactures, it greatly in- 
jures many other interests. 

61. (a) A person born in this country is called a citi- 
zen of it. (b) A person born in a foreign country, 
whether residing in that country or in this, is called an 
alien ; aliens, upon certain conditions may become citizens 
of this country, (c) A person vested with the elective 
franch'ise by the State in which he resides ; one who has the 
right of suffrage. 

62. First, the person desiring citizenship must declare 
on oath before a Court tliat it is his intention to become a 
citizen. Second, he must wait two years after the declar- 
ation ; then, if he has resided in all, five years in the 
United States, and one year in the State before whose 
Court he appears, he may be made a naturalized citizen by 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 261 

renouncing before the court his allegiance to his mother 
country, and by swearing to support the Constitution of 
the United States 

63. Article I., Section 4, of the Constitution, declares 
that The times, places, and manner of holding elections for 
Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each 
State by the Legislature thereof. 

64. The regulations of elections for Senators and Rep- 
resentatives are prescribed by the Legislatures of the re- 
spective States, but " Congress may at any time, by law, 
make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of 
choosing Senators." 

65. "The Congress shall assemble at least once in 
every year ; and such meetings shall be on the first Mon- 
day in December, unless they shall, by law, appoint a dif. 
ferent day." 

66. ' ' When vacancies happen in the representation 
from any State, the executive authority thereof shall is- 
sue writs of election to fill such vacancies." This refers to 
vacancies in the House. Vacancies in the Senate are 
temporarily filled by executive appointment. 

67. The Constitution declares that ' ' Each House shall 
be the judge of the elections, returns, and the qualifica- 
tions of its own members ; and a majority of each shall 
constitute a quorum to do business." 

68. A number less than a quorum " may adjourn from 
day to day, and may be authorized to compel the atten- 
dance of absent members, in such manner, and under such 
penalties, as each House may provide." 

69. A member may be expelled for disorderly behavior, 
with the concurrence of two-thirds of the members of the 
House to which he belongs. A commentator on this subject 
says: " It seems to be settled that a member may be ex- 
pelled for any misdemeanor which, though not punishable 
by any statute, is inconsistent with the trust and duty of a 
member." 



262 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

70. (a) In all cases of impeachment, and when one- 
fifth of the members present desire it. (b) Viva voce, 
and by tellers. 

71. "Neither House, during the session of Congress, 
shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more 
than three days, nor to any other place than that in which 
the Houses shall be sitting." 

72. (a) Congress has power to coin money, to deter- 
mine the amount of gold or silver which shall be put in a 
given coin, and to determine the value of foreign coins in 
our money, (b) Congress also has power to make the 
standards of weight and measure uniform throughout the 
States. 

73. By the authority of Congress. 

74. (a) To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and 
excises to pay the debts and provide for the common de- 
fence and general welfare of the United States ; 

(b) To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and 
among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 

(c) To declare war; grant letters of marque and repri- 
sal; to make rules concerning captures on laud and water; 

(d) To raise and support armies ; 

(e) To establish post-offices and post-roads. 

75. The President of the United States. 

76. (a) A commission bearing the seal of the United 
States and signed by the President, authorizing the com- 
mander of a private armed vessel to seize vessels and 
cargoes belonging to a foreign nation 

(b) An act of a legislative body whereby a person is 
deprived of life or property, without a judicial trial. 

77. (a) A writing issued by the judge of a court to 
deliver a person from false imprisonment, or from illegal 
detention, (b) In cases of treason, or when the public 
safety requires it. 

78. It cannot. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 263 

Because it would give one State power to commit deeds 
which might involve the nation in war with a foreign 
power. 

79. By providing that authors shall be granted copy- 
rights on their productions, and that inventors shall be 
granted patents on their inventions. 

A copyright gives to the author of a book, pamphlet, 
etc., the exclusive right of publication and sale of the 
work copyrighted, for a period of twenty -eight years, with 
the privilege of renewal of copyright for an additional 
period of fourteen years. A patent gives to the inventor 
the exclusive privilege to manufacture and sell the articles 
patented by him, for a period of seventeen years, with the 
privilege of extending the patent for a period of seven 
years. 

80. For the protection of the Government. 

"If the seat of Government were within the jurisdic- 
tion of a State, Congress and other public officers would 
be dependent on the State authority for protection in the 
discharge of their duties, and the State might refuse them 
protection." — Young. 

81. (a) To execute the laws of the nation ; 

(b) To suppress insurrection ; 

(c) To repel invasions of the national domain. 

82. The President is given power by Congress to call 
on the Executive authority of the States to muster the 
militia into the service of the United States. While in the 
service of the national government, the militia is subject 
to the authority of Congress, at other times to the authority 
of the States. 

83. A law passed after the commitment of an act, 
making it a punishable offense. 

" So a law would be ex post facto that inflicts a greater 
punishment than the law imposed when the crime was 
committed. " — Andrews. 

84. The Congress. 



264 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

85. Specified sums of money ordered by Congress to 
be paid from the treasury of the United States to defray 
the expenses of the Government. 

The salaries of officials cannot be paid until Congress 
makes an appropriation for that purpose. 

86. That by which a debt may be paid ; or, perhaps it 
is better to say, that which must be accepted as payment 
of a debt ; such as gold coins, which are made a legal ten- 
der for all debts. 

87. The Supreme Court of the United States. 

88. In the years, 1798, 1813, 1815, 1816, 1861. 
There are at this time (1885) no direct taxes. 

89. The act of Congress, March 3, 1791, which laid a 
tax on liquors distilled in the United States. The collec- 
tion of this tax caused the ' ' Whisky Rebellion " in Wash- 
ington's administration. 

90. By act of August 5, 1861. 

91. They are not: they are considered citizens of the 
United States. 

92. They are, if residing in the United States. 

93. He cannot. 

94. The Constitution declares that ' ' No person, except 
a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at 
the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be 
eligible to the office of President." The same qualifica- 
tions are required to be eligible to the office of Vice- 
President. 

95. Treasury notes issued by the United States Gov- 
ernment. They are, at present, a legal tender for all 
debts public and private, except interest on the bonded 
debt of the United States, and duties on imports. 

96. (a) They are persons (qualified electors of their 
respective States) chosen by the people to elect the Presi- 
dent and Vice-President of the United States, (b) They 
may be chosen directly by the people, or indirectly, that is, 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 265 

by appointment of the State Legislatures. The latter 
method was formerly approved in several of the States, 
but at present, the first method prevails in all the States. 
The Constitution says ' ' that each State shall appoint, in 
such manner as the Legislature may direct, a number of 
Electors equal to the whole number of Senators and Kep- 
resentatives to which the State is entitled in the Congress." 
The Electors constitute what is known as the Electoral 
College. 

97. The Senate and House of Representatives assemble 
together on the second Wednesday in February, when the 
Electoral votes are opened by the President of the Senate, 
and handed to the Tellers, who count them and report the 
result, which is then announced by the President of the 
Senate. 

98. (a) The Constitution says that "No person, except a 
natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at 
the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be 
eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any per- 
son be eligible to that office who shall not have attained 
to the age of thirty -five years, and been fourteen years a 
resident within the United States." (b) The same as 
for President. 

99. The salary of the President is fifty thousand dol- 
lars a year ; that of the Vice-President, eight thousand. 
These salaries are paid monthly. 

100. "The President shall be commander-in-chief of 
the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the 
militia of the several States when called into the actual 
service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, 
in writing, of the principal officers in each of the Exec- 
utive Departments, upon any subject relating to the 
duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to 
grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United 
States, except in cases of impeachment. 



266 CIVIL GOVKRKMENT. 

" He shall have power, by and with the advice and con- 
sent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds 
of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, 
and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, 
shall appoint Embassadors, other public Ministers and 
Consuls, Judges of the Supreme Court, and all other 
officers of the United States, whose appointments are not 
herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be estab- 
lished by law; but the Congress may, by law, vest the 
appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper, 
iu the President alone, in -the Courts of law, or in the 
Heads of Departments. 

"The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies 
that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by 
granting commissions which shall expire at the end of 
their next session." 

101. The President "shall have power to grant re- 
prieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, 
except in cases of impeachment." He cannot pardon an 
offence against a State. 

102. It is not. The President nominates persons to fill 
certain positions, and the Senate either confirms or rejects 
the nominations, just as it sees proper to do. 

103. The Civil Service includes all persons in the service 
of the United States government (except the Army and 
Navy) from the Cabinet down to the most trifling post- 
office. 

104. The President exercises a negative legislative func- 
tion when he makes use of the veto power. 

105. Only until a new President could be elected. A 
special election to elect a President, would be held at the 
same time of year as the regular elections. 

106. On March 4th, unless it occurs on Sunday, in 
which case the oath is not administered until March 5th. 
The oath of office is administered at 12 o'clock noon, by 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 267 

the Chief Justice of the United States. The oath of office 
was administered to Washington by the Chancellor of the 
State of New York : the same functionary administered 
the oath to Vice-President Arthur on his succeeding to the 
Presidency on the death of President Garfield. 

107. The Secretary of State, Secretary of Treasury, 
Secretary of War, Secretary of Navy, Secretary of In- 
terior, Attorney General, and Postmaster General. 

108. When the Senate sits with closed doors, as in the 
discussion of a treaty, or when considering nominations, it 
is said to be in Executive session. 

109. (a) All those whose compensation is one thous- 
and dollars or more a year : (b) All those whose yearly 
compensation is less than one thousand dollars a year. 

110. He can. But by the Tenureof Office Bill, passed 
by Act of Congress in March, ] 867, it was provided that 
the President might suspend an officer during a recess of 
the Senate, but that he must report the same with the rea- 
sons for it to the Senate within twenty days after their 
assembling. Then if the Senate should concur in the re- 
moval, another person might be appointed, but if it should 
not concur, the person removed should be reinstated. 
This Act was afterwards modified. 

111. It is his duty to make the appointment himself. 

112. He can; but the House has never been so con- 
vened. The Senate is often convened for Executive busi- 
ness. 

113. Of three grades of courts ; the Supreme, the 
Circuit, and the District. There are also three grades of 
judges corresponding to the above named courts. 

114. The Supreme Court consist of a Chief Justice 
and eight Associate Justices. 

115. Judges of the Supreme and inferior Courts hold 
office during good befiavior, which is virtually for life. 



268 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

116. They are the executive officers of the United 
States Courts, and their general duties are the same as 
those of the Sheriffs of the State Courts. 

117. "The powers of the Supreme Court extend to all 
cases involving national questions." "A citizen of a 
Territory, or of the District of Columbia, cannot bring a 
suit in a United States Court." 

118. "The trial of all crimes, except in cases of im- 
peachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held 
in the State where the said crimes shall have been com- 
mitted ; but when not committed within any State, the 
trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may 
by law have directed." 

119. (a) "Treason against the United shall consist 
only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their 
enemies, giving them aid and comfort." 

(b) Seizure by private armed vessels, of property (vessels 
and cargos) , upon tlie high seas. 

120. A republican form of government. 

121. "The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both 
Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments 
to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legisla- 
tures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a con- 
vention for proposing Amendments, which in either case, 
shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this 
Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three- 
fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three 
fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification 
may be proposed by the Congress. " 

122. (a) Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, 
except as a punishment for crimes whereof the party shall 
have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United 
States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

(b) January 31, 1865. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 269 

123. (a) The right of citizens of the United States to 
vote shall not be denied or abridged by tlie United States, 
or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous 
condition of servitude. 

(b) March 30, 1870. 

124. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in 
any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time 
of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

125. By applying to Congress for admission, and receiv- 
ing the consent of that body. The new State must have 
first adopted a constitution securing to its inhabitants a 
republican form of government, and must have at the time 
of its admission a population sufficient to entitle it to a 
Representative in Congress. 

126. The Fifth Amendment says that no person shall be 
compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against 
himself. 

127. He can be with the consent of the executive au- 
thority of the State. 

128. The right of the people to be secure in their per- 
sons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable 
searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no war- 
rants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by 
oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to 
be searched, a«d the persons or things to be seized. 

129. A well regulated militia being necessary to the 
security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and 
bear arms shall not be infringed. 



{570 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 



SALARIES OF GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS. 

President of the United States 150,000 

Vice-President .... 8,000 

Private Secretary to the President 3,250 

U. S. Senators 5,000 

Clerks to each Senator 1,000 

Sergeant-at-Arms of the Senate 4,320 

Representatives 5,000 

Speaker of the House .... 8,000 

Sergeant-at-Arms 4,000 

Librarian of Congress 4,000 

Members of the President's Cabinet 8,000 

Commissioner of Internal Revenue 6,000 

Commissioner of Patents 4,500 

Commissioner of Pensions 5,000 

Chief Justice 10,500 

Associate Justices 10,000 

Ministers to France, Germany, Great Britain, and Russia 17,500 
Ministers to Austria, Brazil, China, Italy, Japan, Mexico 

and Spain • 12,000 

Ministers to Central America, Chili, and Peru 10,000 

Governors of the Territories 2,600 



SPEAKERS 



HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. 



F. A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania 1st 

Jonathan Trumbull, Connecticut 2nd 

F. A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania 3d 

Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey 4th 

Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey 5th 

Theodore Sedgwick, Massachusetts 6th 

Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina 7th 

Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina 8th 

Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina 9th 

Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts 10th 

Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts 11th 

Henry Clay, Kentucky 12th 

Henry Clay, Kentucky Iiqv 

Langdon Cheves, South Carolina J 

Henry Clay, Kentucky 14th 

Henry Clay, Kentucky 15th 

Henry Clay, Kentucky 'lieu 

John W. Taylor, New York j ^^*^ 

P. P. Barbour, Virginia 17th 

Henry Clay, Kentucky 18th 

John W. Taylor, New York 19th 

Andrew Stevenson, Virginia 20th 

Andrew Stevenson, Virginia 21st 

Andrew Stevenson, Virginia 22d 

Andrew Stevenson, Virginia -i 

John Bell, Tennessee J 

James K. Polk, Tennessee ... 24th 

James K. Polk, Tennessee 25th 

K. M. T. Hunter, Virginia 26th 



272 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

John White, Kentucky 27th Congress 

John W. Jones, Virginia 28th 

John W. Davis, Indiana 29th 

Eobert C. Winthrop, Massachusetts 30th 

Howell Cobb, Georgia 31st 

Linn Boyd, Kentucky . . . 32d 

Linn Boyd, Kentucky 33d 

Nathaniel P. Banks, Massachusetts 34th 

James L. Orr, South Carolina 35th 

William Pennington, New Jersey 36th 

Galusha A. Grow, Pennsylvania 37th 

Schuyler Colfax, Indiana 38th 

Schuyler Colfax, Indiana 39th 

Schuyler Colfax, Indiana 40th 

James G. Blaine, Maine 41st 

James G. Blaine, Maine 42d 

James G. Blaine, Maine 43d 

Michael C Kerr, Indiana ■■■).., 

. > 44th 

Samuel J. Randall, Pennsylvania / 

Samuel J. Kandall, Pennsylvania 45th 

Samuel J. Randall, Pennsylvania 46th 

J. Warren Keifer, Ohio 47th 

John G. Carlisle, Kentucky 48th 



QUESTIONS 



PHYSIOLOGY. 



1. Name the classes into which all matter may be 
separated. 

2. What are organic bodies? Inorganic? 

3. What features distinguish organic from inorganic 
bodies? 

4. How are organized bodies classified ? 

5. How does the nourishment of animals differ from 
that of plants ? 

6. What is the head of the animal kingdom ? Why ? 

7. What is anatomy ? 

8. What is physiology ? 

9. What is hygiene ? 

10. Define human anatomy and physiology. 

11. Define comparative anatomy and physiology. 

12. What is a cell? A tissue ? An organ ? 

13. In what is the primitive cell the starting point ? 

14. What is a system ? An apparatus ? 

15. How many chemical elements are known to exist? 

16. Name the ultimate elements which enter into the 
composition of the human body. 

17. What ultimate elements are found in all plants 
and animals? 

18. What bulk of oxygen is found in the venous blood? 
In the arterial ? 



274 PHYSIOLOGY. 

19. How much oxygen does an adult consume in a 
year? 

20. What is the chief office of oxygen in the human 
body ? 

21. What is the estimated amount of watei taken daily 
into the system ? 

22. What part of the entire bulk of the body does the 
water in it form ? 

23. What is said of the importance of phosphate of 
lime in the human system ? 

24. What amount of chlorid of sodium (common salt), 
does the system contain ? 

25. What is the marked distinction between animals 
and plants ? 

26. In what parts of the human system is carbonic acid 
found ? 

27. Where are these elements found : pepsin, globulin, 
and ostein ? 

28. Define chyle, lymph, and gastric juice. 

29. By what organs are these fluids secreted : bile, sa- 
liva, and mucosin ? 

30. Name the tissues of the body. 

31. Into what may the fibrous tissues of animals be con- 
verted ? 

32. How are the tissues of the body built up ? 

33. What is osteology ? What are the uses of bones? 

34. Give the composition of bone. 

35. By what are the bones closely covered ? What dis- 
ease has its seat in this covering ? 

36. Why are many of the bones hollow ? 

37. Classify bones according to their shape. 

38. How does the strength of human bones compare 
with that of elm or ash ? With oak? 

39. How may a bone be tied into a knot ? 

40. How may the mineral matter in bones be obtained? 



PHYSIOLOGY. 275 

41. What are Haversian canals ? 

42. What are lacunae ? Canaliculi ? 

43. What is the number of bones in the human body ? 

44. Name the bones that form the cranium or true 
skull. 

45. Name the bones in the face. 

46. How many bones form the spinal column ? 

47. Name the sections of the spinal column, and give 
the number of vertebrae in each. 

48. What is the sacrum ? The coccyx ? 

49. How many ribs has man ? How are they classified ? 

50. Name the bones of the forearm. How many bones 
in the wrist ? 

51. Why are there two bones in the forearm ? 

52. What is the longest bone in the human frame? 
Name the most complicated bone : the hardest bone. 

53. Name the bones in the ear. 

54. Locate the os hyoid, the patella, the fibula and 
tibia. 

55. What is the use of the patella? 

56. How are the joints lubricated ? 

57. Why are there so many bones in the spinal column ? 

58. How are the bones in the cranium united? 

59. Why is the socket which holds the head of the fe- 
mur, so much deeper than that which holds the head of 
the humerus f 

60. Why are there several bones in the feet and hands? 

61. Why do not the bones of children break so easily 
as those of grown persons ? 

62. What are the three kinds of articulation between 
the different bones of the body ? 

63. Why are not all the ribs attached in front to the 
sternum ? 

64. What is the use of the clavicle? 

65. Why are the lower extremities of such great length ? 



276 PHYSIOLOGY. 

66. Why are there but two bones in the thumb? In 
the great toe ? 

67. What is the cause of the rickets ? 

68. Describe the movements of the head. 

69. How many processes has each vertebra ? 

70. How are the vertebrse united ? 

71. What is the cavity called into which the head of 
the femur is inserted ? 

72. What bones compose the pelvis ? 

73. When one shoulder is elevated for a great while, 
what is the effect upon the spinal column ? 

74. How long after a bone is broken before it begins to 
re-unite ? What care should be exercised at this time ? 

75. What should be the treatment of a joint when 
sprained ? 

76. How many bones in the upper extremities ? How 
many in the lower extremities ? 

77. What is the number of the first set of teeth ? At 
what age is the first set complete ? 

78. What is the number of the second set of teeth? 
When complete? 

79. What bone is completely ossified at birth ? Classify 
the teeth ? 

80. At what age are the bones completely ossified ? 

81. What is the number of joints in the human frame ? 

82. What is the diflTerence betweeo the exterior and 
the interior layer of the bones ? 

83. What are the parts of a muscle ? 

84. What is the origin of a muscle ? The insertion ? 

85. With what are the muscles invested ? 

86. Give the microscopic structure of muscles. 

87. With what are muscles endowed? Where is its 
seat? 

88. What are flexors? What are extensors? 

89. What are the uses of the muscles ? 



PHYSIOLOGY. 277 

90. How are the muscles classified as to their form ? 

91. How many muscles in the humau body? How 
many single muscles ? 

92. How do the muscles contract ? 

93. What is the arrangement of the muscles ? 

94. Give some examples of muscular strength. 

95. What is a fibril ? A tendon ? 

96. How are the voluntary and involuntary muscles 
distinguished ? 

97. How is muscular development promoted ? 

98. What muscles close the eyes? To what class do 
they belong ? 

99. What muscles elevate the inferior maxillary? 

100. What muscle bends the arm towards the boay? 
What is its antagonist ? What form of muscle are they ? 

101. Where are the muscles situated that move the 
hands and fingers ? 

102. What is the essential muscle of respiration ? 

103. What is the tendon of Achilles ? 

104. Where are the annular ligaments? 

105. Where is the deltoid muscle ? What is its use ? 

106. Name the muscles of the head and neck. 

107. Name the muscles of the front part of the trunk. 

108. Name the muscles of the back part of the trunk. 

109. Name the muscles of the upper extremities. 

110. Name the muscles of the lower extremities. 

111. What is the antagonist of the temporal and 
masseter muscles? Where is its insertion ? Its origin ? 

112. When should muscular exercise be taken ? 

113. Give some instances of the rapidity of muscular 
contraction. 

114. Name some diseases to which the muscles are 
subject. 

115. How is the fleshy part of a muscle affected by 
contraction. 



278 PHYSIOLOGY. 

116 Have the tendons the power of contractility ? 

117 Where are the serous membranes found ? 

118. Where are the mucous membranes found ? 

119. What do the serous membranes secrete ? The 
mucous ? 

120 What is a gland? What is the simplest form o1 

a gland ? 

121. Name the principal forms of glands. 

122. What do the digestive organs include ? 

123. What is the alimentary canal ? 

124. What organs aid in mastication? 

125. Name the salivary glands. 

126. What is the uvula? What are the tonsils f 

127. Locate the pharynx, and the esophagus. 

128. How is the food passed along the esophagus ? 

129. What is the size of the stomach ? 

130. How many coats compose the stomach ? Name 
them. 

131. Name the orifices of the stomach. 

132. How is the food digested in the stomach ? 

133. What is chyme ? What is chyle ? 

134. What secretions are received into the duodenum ? 

135. What are the divisions of the small intestine ? 

136. What are the divisions of the large intestine? 

137. Name the large glands attached to the intestines. 

138. What is the largest gland in the body? 

139. Why does not the stomach digest itself? 

140. What is hunger? 

141. What is thirst ? 

142. What are the lacteal absorbents ? 

143. What are the mesenteric glands ? 

144. Describe the thoracic duct. 

145. What is the epiglottis ? What is its use ? 

146. State the various processes through which the 
food passes to form living flesh. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 279 

147. Upon what does the quantity of food necessary for 
the system depend ? 

148. For what purposes does the system require food ? 

149. What time is required to digest an ordinary meal ? 

150. Why do young persons require more food thaji 
old people? 

151. What is the first work of the stomach in digestion ? 

152. What is the office of the spleen? 

153. What is the temperature of the stomach ? 

154. Describe the lymphatics. What is the lymphatic 
duct? 

155. How often is the entire body renewed? 

156. Should food be taken immediately before going to 
bed? 

157. Where does the hepatic duct empty? 

158. What are the properties of gastric juice ? 

159. Does the gastric juice digest fatty or starchy sub- 
stance ? 

160. By what are fatty substances digested ? 

161. Give the amount of the following fluids secreted 
in twenty-four hours : saliva, gastric juice, bile, and pancre- 
atic juice, 

162. Name the organs of the circulating system. 

163. Give the position of the heart. 

164. What are the divisions of the heart? 

1 65. How are the auricles separated from the ventricles ? 

166. Where are the semilunar valves? 

167. What is the pericardium ? The endocardium ? 

168. What is the fluid capacity of the heart ? 

169. What is the quantity of blood in the system ? 

170. Describe the arteries. 

171. Describe the veins. 

172. Describe the capillaries. 

173. What kind of blood is conveyed through the 
arteries ? Through the veins ? 



280 PHYSIOLOGY. 

174. What arteries convey venous blood ? What veins 
carry arterial blood ? 

175. In what respects do the auricles and ventricles 
differ ? 

176. What are the two kinds of circulation of the 
blood ? 

177. Give the circulation of the blood. 

178. What is the time required for the circulation ? 

179. Who discovered the circulation of the blood ? 
When ? • 

180. What forces propel the blood through the system ? 

181. What are the movements of the heart ? 

182. What is the pulse ? 

183. How do you distinguish between wounds of 
arteries and veins by seeing the flow of blood ? 

184. What circumstances affect the rate of circulation ? 

185. What important change of the blood takes place 
in the capillaries? 

186. Why are the arteries deeply imbedded in the 
flesh, while the veins lie near the surface of the body ? 

187. To what portion of the body is the most blood 
sent? 

188. What action have the lungs upon the blood ? 

189. Name the principal arteries. 

190. Name the principle veins. 

191. What are the uses of the blood ? 

192. Why is the blood red ? 

193. Name the respiratory organs. 

194. What is the average capacity of the lungs? 

195. What is the pleura ? What is pleurisy ? 

196. What is the essential organ of the voice ? Of 
what is it composed ? 

197. What are the vocal chords ? What forms "Adam's 
Apple"? 

198. U.pon what does the tone of the voice depend? 
The pitch ? 



PHYSIOLOGY. 281 

199. What is the average amount of air taken into the 
lungs daily by a grown person ? 

200. What is the quantity of oxygen consumed by a 
grown person in twenty-four hours? What quantity of 
carbonic acid is given off by the lungs in that time ? 

201. When is the air unfit for breathing ? 

202. What is the temperature of the human body ? Does 
the temperature vary? 

203. How is the heat of the body maintained at nearly 
a uniform temperature in all climates ? 

204. Explain the process of breathing. 

205. What is coughing ? What is sneezing ? 

206. What is hiccough ? Sighing? Yawning? 

207. What is the office of the skin ? 

208. Of how many coats is it composed ? Name them. 

209. Where is the seat of color in the skin ? 

210. Why do persons of fair complexion become 
darker when exposed to the sunlight ? 

211. If the nails of the fingers were not cut or broken, 
to what length would they grow ? 

212. What is the use of the epidermis? 

213. What amount of waste matter escapes through 
the skin daily ? 

214. How often should the body be bathed to promote 
health ? 

215. Of what does the nervous system consist ? 

216. What are the functions of the nervous system ? 

217. What is the brain ? 

218. What are the divisions of the brain ? 

219. What are the convolutions of the brain? 

220. What is the medula oblongata f 

221. How many lobes form the cerebrum? Name 
them. 

222. Of what is the brain composed ? The spinal cord? 

223. Name the membranes which envelop the brain. 



282 PHYSIOLOGY. 

224. What are ganglia? What are papillae? 

225. Name the cavities of the brain. With what are 
these cavities sometimes partially filled ? 

226. How are the nerves classified ? 

227. How many pairs of cranial nerves? Name 
them. 

228. How many pairs of spinal nerves ? 

229. Which division of the brain is the seat of motion 
and sensation ? 

230. What is the function of the medula oblongata ? 

231. Name the coats of the eye. 

232. Name the humors of the eye. 

233. Where is the seat of color in the eye? 

234. What is the cause of near-sightedness ? Of long- 
sightedness ? 

235. Name the parts of the ear. 

236. What are the divisions of the external ear ? 

237. Of what does the middle ear consist? 

238. Describe the eustachian tube. 

239. Name the divisions of the labyrinth. 

240. What membrane separates the auditory canal 
from the tympanum ? 

241. What influence has sunlight upon the nervous 
system ? 



ANSWERS 



QUESTIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY. 



1. All matter may be separated into two classes : organ- 
ic and inorganic. 

2. (a) Those that have life, and which are produced 
by previously existing organized bodies : such are plants 
and animals. 

(b) Those with which life is not associated, and which 
are not produced by any previously existing body of like 
kind ; such as air, minerals, stones, etc. 

3. (a) Organic bodies spring from germs, grow, re- 
quire food, have the power of reproduction, and are sub- 
ject to death. 

(b) Inorganic bodies do not spring from germs, have 
no growth, require no food, cannot produce their kind, 
and are not subject to death. 

4. Into two classes : animals and plants. 

5. (a) Animals require for their sustenance and 
growth, organic matter for food : such as flesh and vege- 
tables. Animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbonic acid_ 

(b) Plants derive their food from inorganic substances. 
They absorb carbonic acid and exhale oxygen. Thus it is 
seen that plants and animals are dependent on each other 
for their existence, the matter exhaled by the one being 
absorbed by the other. 

6. (a) Man stands at the head of the animal kingdom, 
(b) Because "Man is the end toward which all the 



284 PHYSIOLOGY. 

animal kingdom has tended from the first appearance of 
the Palseozoic fishes." — Ayassiz and Gould. 

(c) The different grades in the animal kingdom are es- 
tablished by placing those having the most complicated 
nervous system highest on the scale. Man having the larg- 
est brain in proportion to the rest of his body, and pos- 
sessed of the greatest relative amount of nerves, is therefore 
placed at the head of the animal kingdom. — Hitchcock's 
Anatomy and Physiology. 

7. The science which treats of the structure of the dif- 
ferent organs of animals. 

8. The science which treats of the functions or uses of 
the different organs of animals 

9. The science that treats of the laws of health and 
the means of its promotion and preservation. 

10. It is the science that describes the organs of the 
human body, and treats of their functions or uses. 

11. It is the science that treats of the structure and 
functions of the organs of man, embracing a description of 
like parts of some of the lower animals. 

12. (a) A spheroidal body consisting of a cell wall, 
of cell contents (protoplasm, bioplasm, etc.), including a 
smaller spherical mass, the nucleus, which in turn contains 
one or more smaller bodies, termed nucleoli, (b) The 
various textures of which the organs are composed, 
and which are formed from cell growth, (c) Any part 
of the body composed of one or more tissues, and cajaable 
of a special function. 

13. The primitive cell is the starting point in the 
formation of a living body. 

14. A system consists of several organs of similar 
structure taken together ; as, the osseous system. 

Two or more systems or organs differing in structure, 
taken together are called an apparatus. 

15. Sixty-five in all. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 285 

16. Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, 
potassium, sodium, chlorine, phosphorus, sulphur, silicon, 
iron, magnesium, and fluorine. 

17. Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. 

18. (a) About fourteen cubic inches, (h) Nearly ten 
cubic inches. 

19. Between seven hundred and eight hundred pounds. 

20. To maintain the animal heat of the body, and to 
vitalize the blood. 

21. About four and a half pounds. 

22. Neai'ly three-fourths. 

23. It exists in all the solids and fluids of the body. 
The bones are more than half made up of phosphate of 

lime, and the teeth contain a large per cent, of it. 

24. It is found in every solid and fluid of the body, 
except in the enamel of the teeth. The Avhole amount in 
the body is estimated to be about 277 grains. 

25. The power of voluntary motion ; the ability of 
animals to move at will from place to place. 

26. In the blood and alimentary canal. It is passed 
from the system chiefly through the lungs. 

27. (a) In the gastric fluid in the stomach; (b) in 
the red corpuscles of the blood ; (c) it is the essential 
organic element in bone, and from it gelatin is obtained by 
boiling in water. 

28. (a) A white, coagulable fluid, formed from chyme, 
and found in the lacteals of the small intestine, being ab- 
sorbed by them as the food passes along the intestinal 
canal; (b) a clear, coagulable fluid, found in the absor- 
bents or lymphatics; (c) a thin acid fluid secreted by the 
stomach during the process of digestion. 

29. (a) By the liver ; (b) by the parotid, sub- 
maxillary, and sublingual glands ; (c) by the mucous 
membrane. 

30. The fibrous, areolar, cartilaginous, fibro-cartila- 
ginous, elastic, adipose, and muscular. 



286 PHYSIOLOGY. 

31. The fibrous tissue of the skin of animals is con- 
verted, by tanning, into leather ; by boiling, into gelatin or 
glue. 

32. By the various forms of cell growth, 

33. (a) That department of anatomy which treats of 
the bones, their forms, articulations, etc. (b) To furnish a 
frame-work for the attachment of muscles, to give stability 
to the body, and to protect its softer and vital parts. 

34. Cartilage 33 per cent. 
Phosphate of Lime 57 per cent. 
Corbonate of Lime 8 per cent. 
Fluorid of Calcium 1 per cent. 
Phosphate of Magnesia 1 per cent. 

— Hitchcock's Anatomy and Physiology. 

35. (a) By a tough yellowish-white membrane called 
the periosteum. 

(b) The disease known asfelon, sometimes called whitlow, 

36. In order that they may have great strength with 
comparatively little weight. 

37. They may be divided into four classes : Imig, flat, 
short, and irregular. 

38. (a) Bones when used as levers are nearly three 
times as strong as elm or ash ; (b) twice as strong as oak. 

39. Put one of the long bones of a fowl into a vessel 
containing diluted muriatic acid, and let it remain several 
hours. The acid will remove the mineral matter from the 
bone, and leave the cartilage, which will be so flexible that 
it can be easily tied into a knot. 

40. By burning them ; this will destroy the animal sub- 
stance (cartilage) and leave the mineral salts in the form 
of white and gray ashes. 

41. They are minute tubes or vessels which carry the 
nutritive and watery portions of the blood through the 
bones. They penetrate the surface of the bones at the 
nutritious foramina, and traverse the bony structures in 



PHYSIOLOGY. 287 

all directions. They are named from their discoverer, 
Clopton Havers. 

42. (a) They are bone corpuscles ; (b) bone pores. 

43. Two hundred and eight. Tliis is exclusive of the 
teeth and the sesamoid bodies. 

44. There are ei^/ii bones in the cranium: \ frontal, 1 
occipital, 2 temporal, 2 parietal, 1 sphenoid, and 1 ethmoid. 

45. There are fourteen bones iu the face : 2 nasal, 2 
malar, 2 palate, 2 lachrymal, 2 turbinated, 2 superior maxil- 
lary, 1 inferior ma.villary, and 1 vomer. 

46. twenty four true vertebrce besides the sacrum and coccyx. ' 

47. The divisions are; the cervical or neck, 7 vert- 
ebrae ; the dorscd or back, 12 vertebrae ; the lumbar or loins, 
5 vertebrae. 

48. (a) A large bone, having the appearance of five 
vertebrie grown together, upon which the lower lumbar 
vertebrae rest. 

(b) The lower extremity of the spinal column. 

49. (a) Twentyfour. (b) Into two classes, called the 
true and the false ribs : of the first class, there are seven on 
each side of the chest ; of the second class, there are five 
on each side of the chest. These latter are called/ake, be- 
cause they do not unite closely in front with the sternum 
or breast-bone. 

50. (a) The ulna and the radius. (b) There are 
eight bones in the wrist. 

51. To give greater freedom of motion than could be 
secured with one bone. The tdna forms a hinge joint in 
its articulation with the humerus, but is free at its other 
extremity to rotate on the radius. 

The radius articulates with the bones of the wrist, but is 
free at its upper extremity to rotate on the ulrm. So that 
by this arrangement, the movements of supination and 
pronation are easily made. 

52. (a) The femur; (b) the sphenoid bone; (c) the 
temporal. 



288 PHYSIOLOGY. 

53. The malleus, incus, stapes, and the obicidar bone. 

54. (a) It is situated at the root of the tongue, (b) 
On the anterior part of the lower extremity of the femur. 
(c) They form the lower portion of the leg. 

55. It serves as a pulley to give change of direction to 
the force of the muscles which move the lower part of 
the leg. 

56. The surfaces of the joints are provided with a 
membrane which, upon the use of the member in which 
the joint is seated, secretes a kind of lubricating substance 
known as synovial fluid. Thus the joints are self-lubricating. 

57. To make it flexible, to give it a degree of stability 
which could not be secured if the joints were farther apart, 
and to furnish a greater number of processes than could 
be formed on fewer bones occupying the same space. 

58. By a kind of union not greatly unlike what in car- 
pentry is styled dovetailing. The ragged edges of the bones 
are sutures, and where these fit into each other they form a 
kind of seam called a suture. 

59. Because the lower extremities are not designed to 
have so great a latitude of motion as the upper ones, but 
are given greater strength and firmness to support the 
weight of the body. 

60. The feet are formed of a great many bones in order 
to give them elasticity in walking, and to guard against 
shocks to the frame in running, jumping, and other ex- 
ercise. The hands are made up of many bones to give 
them flexibility, and ease of motion. 

61. Bones of children are composed mostly of cartilage, 
hence are more flexible than those of old people, whose 
bones have a predominance of mineral matter in their 
composition. 

62. Synarthrosis or immovable; amphiarthrosis or mixed; 
diarthrosis or movable. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 289 

63. If the lower ribs were attached in front to the 
sternum, the chest would be so inflexible as to prevent 
stooping or bending forward. The lower portions of the 
chest assist in respiration, which they could not do were 
they inflexible. From the elacticityof the lower and front 
portions of the chest, much injury is prevented in cases of 
blows on those regions. 

64. To prevent the humerus from coming forward to- 
ward the middle portion of the body, and to assist in lifting 
weights with the hands. 

65. To facilitate locomotion. 

66. (a) To give greater firmness to this member than 
to its opposing members, the fingers : and, to make the 
hand capable of delicate manipulations : (b) to give great 
strength to the foot in walking. 

67. They are caused by a lack of earthy matter in the 
bones, which renders them so soft as to bend under the to- 
nicity of the muscles. 

68. The forward and backward movement of the head 
is provided for in the articulation of the skull with the 
spinal column. The first cervical vertebra, atlas, has two 
depressions in its upper surface, into which projections 
from the skull fit, allowing free movement of the head to 
and fro. 

The rotary movement of the head is provided for in the 
union of the first with the second cervical vertebra, axis. 
This last named vertebra has a little pivot-like projection 
which fits into a hole in the first vertebra, thus allowing 
the head to turn freely from side to side. 

69. Each vertebra has seven projections or processes. 

70. They are united with each other by ligaments, 
known as the yellow, the anterior vertebral, and the posterior 
vertebral. Between the vertebrje are pads of cartilage of 
from one-fourth to one-half an inch in thickness, 

71. The acetabulum. 



290 PHYSIOLOGY. 

72. The sacrum, the coccyx, and the two innominata. 

73. The pads of cartilage between the vertebrae be- 
come compressed on one side and expanded on the other, 
and the tendency is to produce lateral curvature of the 
spine. 

74. (a) From two to four weeks, depending upon the 
age of the person: (b) Cutter says, "This is the most 
important period, as the bone is uniting, and, unless the 
ends are nicely adjusted, the dressing properly applied, the 
person will find, on recovery, a shortened and crooked 
limb." 

75. It should be bathed in cold water and given rest. 

76. (a) Sixty-four : (b) Sixty. 

77. (a) Twenty, ten in each jaw ; (b) from the third 
to the fourth year. 

78. (a)Thirty-two, sixteen in each jaw ; (b) at about 
the twentieth year. 

79. (a) The petrous portions of the temporal. It con- 
tains the organs of hearing. 

(b) On each side of the upper and of the lower jaw are 
eight teeth : 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 bicuspids, 2 molars, 
and 1 wisdom. 

80. About the twentieth year. 

81. There are over two hundred joints in the human 
frame. 

82. The exterior layer is smooth and compact, compar- 
atively thin, and gives strength to the bones : tlie interior 
layer is loose and spongy, and helps to reduce the force of 
falls and blows. 

83. The tendons, and belly or swell. 

84. (a) That extremity of a tendon of a muscle which 
is nearest the center of motion : (b) that extremity of a 
tendon which is most remote from the center of motion. 

85. With a membranous sheath called /ascia. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 291 

86. Fasciculus orbuudles of fibers : each of these fibers 
is made up of ultiiiuite fibers : these are composed of fibrils, 
and each fibril is composed of cells. 

87. (a) Each muscle is endowed with the power of 
myotility : (d) in the fleshy part or belly of the muscle. 

88. (a) Flexors are those muscles which by contraction 
bend the limbs at the joints: (b) those muscles which" by 
contraction straighten the limbs. 

89. (1) To give motion to the various members of the 
body. 

(2) To hold the limbs in position. 

(3) To protect the skeleton. 

(4) To give form and symmetry to the different mem 
bars of the body. 

90. Radiate, fusiform, penrdform, bipenniform, ribbon or 
bayid, and sphincter. 

91. (a) The number of muscles in man is 540, being 
more than twice the number of bones. They are nearly 
all arranged in pairs ; that is, both sides of the body have 
similar muscles, while the single or unmated muscles are 
only thirteen. — Hitchcock's Anatomy. 

92. The fibrils of the muscles are shortened by a 
change, in diameter, of the cells of which they are com- 
posed. 

93. (1) The muscles are all, except thirteen, arranged 
in pairs, that is, " both sides of the body have similar 
muscles." 

(2) Each muscle has an antagonist, that is, one to pro- 
duce motion in opposite direction. 

94. Hitchcock says : " We read of Milo of Crete who 
killed an ox with his fist, and then carried it more than 
600 feet. Another man is mentioned who could raise 300 
pounds by the muscles of his jaw. A flea harnessed will 
draw from seventy to eighty times its own weight, " 



292 PHYSIOLOGY. 

95. (a) A fibril is a primary muscular thread, and is 
composed of cells. Fibrils form ultimate fibers, and these 
in turn, form a fasciculus. 

(b) They are bundles of white, glistening, fibrous tis- 
sue, forming the extremities of the muscles, and by which 
these are attached to the bones. 

96. (1) By their use. 
(2) By their appearance. 

Those muscles that carry on the vital functions, such as 
breathing, digestion, etc., are called invohmtary; the 
others, or those under the control of the will, are called 
voluntary. The involuntary muscles are made up of un- 
striped or smooth fibers ; the voluntary are made up of 
striped or beaded fibers. 

97. By moderate exercise daily for a period of at least 
four hours. 

98. (a) The obicularis palpebrse ; (b) they are 
sphincters. 

99. The masseter (chewing), and the temporal mus- 
cles. 

100. (a) The biceps; (b) the triceps ; (c) they are fine 
specimens of the fusiform muscle. 

101. They are situated in the forearm, and form the 
fleshy portion of that member. 

102. The diaphragm. 

103. It is the tendon of the large muscle in the calf of 
the leg, and which raises the heel in walking. Its inser- 
tion is on the os calcis or heel bone. 

104. They are bands of ligamentous tissue which pass 
around the wri.sts and ankles, and serve to hold in position 
the tendons which move the fingers and toes. 

105. (a) It is the large muscle at the upper extremity 
of the humerus, (b) To raise the arm to a horizontal 
position. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 293 

106. The occipito-frontal, obicularis palpebne, obictdaris 
oris, zygomatic, leiaporaL masscter, aiid stenio-deido-mastouleua. 

107. The great pectoral, great aerrated, external oblique, 
and straight abdominal. 

108. The trapezius, latisslmus, rhomboid, superior serrated, 
and inferior serrated. 

109. The deltoid, biceps, triceps, brachial, radio-carpals, 
ulno-carpals, flexors and extensors of the fingers. 

110. The gluteus, sartorius, quadriceps extensor, biceps 
flexor, extensors of tlie toes, tibial, gastrochnemius, and soleus. 

111. (a) The digaMricus; (b) on the* chin ; (c) the 
mastoid processes behind the ears. 

112. Early in the morning. Care should be taken not 
to exercise violently directly after meals, or immediately 
before them. 

113 Some persons can utter 1,500 letters (in words) in 
a minute, each requiring a change in position of the vocal 
organs. The common horse-fly can make voluntarily 
330 movements of the wing in a second. 

114. St. Vitus's dance, lock-jaw, lumbago, and rheu- 
matism. 

115. It is shortened in its long diameter, and is in- 
creased in breadth and thickness. 

116. They have not. 

117. "They line all the cavities of the body, which 
are without any external communication " : as the pleura, 
the pericardium, and the peritoneum. 

118. " They line all the cavities and passages of the 
body which have an external communication "; as the lining 
of the alimentary canal, the trachea, and bronchial tubes. 

119. (a) A clear, yellowish fluid called serum; (b) a 
clear viscid liquid called mticus. 

120. A gland is an organ which secretes and pours 
forth a liquid from one or more ducts, or orifices, opening 
on the surface of the skin, or on the mucous membrane. 



294 PHYSIOLOGY. 

This liquid is called a secretion, and has various names de- 
pending upon its source : thus it is called mucus, from 
mucous membrane ; saliva, from salivary glands ; and bile, 
from the liver. When this secretion is rejected from the 
body as useless, it is then called an excretion, as the perspi- 
ration from the skin, (b) The simplest form of a gland is 
a straight tube closed atone end, and opening at the other 
end upon the free surface of the mucous membrane, as in 
the glands of the small intestine. — Martindale. 

121. The follicular, the convoluted, the race7nose, and the 
reticxdar. 

122. The mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, 
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intes- 
tine, pancreas, spleen, and liver. 

123. The whole length of the tube beginning with the 
mouth and including the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, 
small intestine, and large intestine. 

124. The teeth, palate, tongue, and salivary glands. 

125. The parotid, submaxillary, and sublingual. 

126. (a) A small tongue-like body suspended from the 
middle of the soft palate, (b) They are almond shaped 
glands in the back and upper part of the throat, which se- 
crete mucus to aid the food in its passage to the stomach. 

127. (a) It is the tubular cavity between the base of 
the tongue and the spinal column, which opens into the 
esophagus. 

(b) It is a tube about eight inches in length, extending 
from the pharynx to the cardiac orifice in the stomach. 

128. By the alternate relaxation and contraction of the 
muscular bands which form the esophagus, aided by an 
oily secretion from the esophageal glands. 

129. The stomach in its normal condition will contain 
about a solid quart, but liy excessive eating and drinking 
it becomes greatly enlarged. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 295 

130. The stomach is composed of four coats : the ser- 
ous or outer, the muscular, the fibrous, and the mucous or 
inner. 

131. (1) The upper, or cardiac orifice. 
(2) The lower, or pyloric orifice. 

132. By the gastric juice secreted from the mucous coat 
of the stomach, aided by muscular action of the middle 
coats. Hence, stomach digestion is both a chemical and a 
mechanical process 

133. (a) The pulpy mass to which the food is reduced by 
stomach digestion : (b) The milk like fluid extracted from 
the food in the duodenum through the action of the bile, 
the pancreatic fluid, etc, 

134. Bile from the liver, and pancreatic fluid from the 
pancreas ; also, intestinal fluid secreted by the duodenum 
itself. 

135. The duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. 

136. The coecura, colon, sigmoid flexure, and rectum. 

137. The liver, the pancreas, the spleen, and the kid- 
neys. 

138. The liver ; its average weight is four pounds, and 
its length from ten to twelve inches. 

139. Because the gastric juice does not flow until the 
mucous coat of the stomach is excited by some substance 
within it. Another reason is, that the gastric juice will 
not digest living matter. After death, the stomach is acted 
upon by the gastric juice, and its walls are frequently de- 
stroyed. 

140. It is the sensation of want of nutriment in the 
system, made manifest by impressions upon the nerves of 
the stomach. 

141. It is the sensation of the want of water in the 
system, manifested in the fauces or throat. 

142. They are minute vessels, the mouths of which 
open upon the mucous coat of the small intestine, and 



296 PHYSIOLOGY. 

which absorb the- nutritious fluid called chyle, and con- 
vey it to the mesenteric glands. 

143. They are small sac-like bodies through which the 
chyle is conducted by the lacteal s to the thoracic duct. 

144. It is a small tube, about the size of a goose-quill, 
lying close along the spinal column, and extending from 
the mesenteric glands to the left subclavian vein, into 
which it pours the chyle taken up by the lacteals. 

145. It is a valvular arrangement of fibro-cartilage, 
and is one of essential parts of the larynx. Its use is to 
close the glottis to prevent foreign matter from entering 
the wind-pipe. 

146. Mastication, insalivation, deglutition, chymifica- 
tion, chylification, separation and absorption, and assimila- 
tion. 

147. The quantity of food necessary for the system va- 
ries. Age, occupation, temperament, temperature, habits, 
amount of clothing, health, and disease, are among the cir- 
cumstances which produce the variation. — Cidter. 

148. To sustain the growth of the body, to repair the 
waste, and to keep up the animal heat. 

149. From two to four hours. 

Boiled rice will digest in about one hour, while boiled 
mutton requires four and one half hours, and roasted pork 
over five hours to digest. 

150. Young persons require food to sustain the growth 
of the body, and to repair its waste : old people require 
food to repair waste only. 

151. To remove the fluid which has been taken into the 
stomach with the food. The fluids are absorbed by num- 
erous veins (radicles) the mouths of which ( ommunica,te 
with the mucous coat of the stomach, 

152. It is not known what the function of the spleen 
is. It is said by some that it produces blood corpuscles, 
and uses up those that are no longer of service to the body. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 



297 



Others agaiu, suppose that it absorbs poisons iu the system, 
since it becomes enlarged in cases of malaria. 

153. From 98 to 100 degrees, Fahrenheit. 

154. (a) They form a system of absorbents connected 
with every part of the body, resembling the lacteals in 
structure and use, the chief difference between them being 
this: the lacteals absorb only nutrient matter, "while the 
lymphatics give up to the general circulation not only use- 
ful products, but all those which are absorbed." (b) It is 
a small tube corresponding iu general structure to the 
thoracic duct of the lacteal system. It lies on the right 
side of the spinal column, and enters the venous circulation 
at the right subclavian vein. 

155. In a period of from seven to ten years. 

156. Yes, if the system demands it. 

There is an old time prejudice against eating immediately 
before retiring, as it is thought that by so doing, the rest 
required by the system is broken But physiologists of to- 
day, claim that eating moderately of digestible food before 
retiring, promotes the general health, and brings refreshing 
rest to both mind and body. 

157. Into the duodenum. 

158. Acid, fermentative, and autise])tic. 

159. It does not. Fatty substances are simply melted 
by the heat of the stomach, and starchy matters are gela- 
tinized by the gastric juice, the same as they would be l)v 
water . 

160. By the pancreatic juice. 

161. Saliva, three pounds; gastric juice, fourteen pounds ; 
bile, two and one-half pounds ; jjancreatic juice, two pounds. 

162. The heart, the arteries, the capillaries, and the 
veins. 

163. It is situated between tiic lungs in the thorax, and 
more to the left than to the right of the median line of the 



298 PHYSIOLOGY. 

body. Its apex points downward and forward to a point 
opposite the cartilage of the sixth rib. 

164. The heart is divided into two general divisions 
called the right and the left heart. Each of these has an 
upper chamber called an auricle, and a lower one called a 
ventricle. 

165. The right auricle is separated from the right ven- 
tricle by the tricuspid valve. The left auricle is separated 
from the left ventricle by the mitral valve. 

166 In the pulmonary artery where it branches off 
from the right ventricle, and in the aorta where it springs 
from the left ventricle. 

167. (a) The pericardium is a fibro-serous eac encloB- 
ing the heart. It contains a small quantity of fluid like 
water, in which the heart floats, (b) The endocardium is 
the smooth inner coat of the heart. 

168. The heart ordinarily contains about a pint of 
blood. 

169. The quantity of blood in a man of average 
weight is about sixteen and a half pints, or twenty 
pounds 

170. They are cylindrical tubes which convey the 
blood from the ventricles to all parts of the body, and are 
composed of three coats, viz: an external or fibrous, a 
middle or muscular, and an internal or serous. The in- 
ternal coat is very smooth and elastic, and the middle 
one has the power of contraction. 

171. They are tubular vessels, like the arteries, but 
larger and more numerous. They begin at the capil- 
laries and convey the blood to the heart, and like the 
arteries, are composed of three coats, the inner one of which 
contains valvular arrangements to prevent the blood from 
flowing backward. 

172. They form a network of minute blood vessels in 
all parts of the body, and connect the ends of the arteries 
with the commencement of the veins. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 299 

173. (a) The arteries convey pure or arterial blood: 
(b) The veins convey impure or venous blood. 

174. (a) The pulmonary arteries carry venous blood 
from the right ventricle to the lungs: (b) The pulmon- 
ary veins carry arterial blood from the lungs to the left 
auride. 

175. (1) The auricles receive the blood, and the ven- 
tricles propel it to all parts of the system. 

(2) The walls of the auricles are thin and elastic, those 
of the ventricles, thick and muscular. 

(3) The capacity of the auricles is a little less than that 
of the ventricles. 

176. The pulmonic and the systemic. 

The first refers to the circulation through the pulmonary 
arteries, the lungs, and the pulmonary veins. The second 
includes the circulation through the aorta and the arteries, 
with their returning veins. 

177. The course of the blood through the system is — 
left ventricle, aorta, arteries, capillaries, veins, vena cava, 
right auricle, right ventricle, pulmonary arteries, lungs, 
pulmonary veins, left auricle, and left ventricle, the place 
of beginning. 

178. "A portion of the blood will make the tour of 
the body in about twenty-three seconds," and it is supposed 
that the entire bulk in the system passes through the 
heart in about two minutes. 

179. (a) William Harvey, an English physician. 

(b) The discovery was first published to the world in 
1628, altliMugh Harvey had believed it for many years 
previous, but failed to prove it satisfactorily. It is said 
that he spent twenty years in making the discovery, and 
then spent nine years additional in perfecting his experi- 
ments to prove it. 

180. (1) Contraction of the heart. 
(2) Elasticity of the arteries. 



300 PHYSIOLOGY. 

(3) Capillary force. 

(4) Muscular pressure. 

(5) Act of inspiration. 

(6) Arterialization of the blood. 

— Hitchcock. 

181. Its systole or contraction, and its diastole or 
expansion. 

The auricles and the ventricles contract and expand 
alternately. 

182. It is the dilation of an artery, caused by the pump- 
ing of blood into it, at each contraction of the heart, and 
may be felt Avhere the artery lies near the surface of the 
body, as at the wrist, or on the temple. 

183. The blood from the arteries is a bright red, that 
from the veins is a dark purple color. 

The blood from the arteries spurts at each pulsation, 
while that from the veins flows in a steady stream. 

184. Exercise, state of the mind, condition of health, 
the time of day, and the position of the body. 

185. In the capillaries the blood is converted into living 
flesh. 

186. For their better protection, since they contain 
the life-fluid of the body. 

187. To the brain. 

It is estimated that this organ receives from six to twenty 
times the amount of blood sent to any other organ in the 
system. 

188 They purify it. 

By the princi])les of endosmose and exosmose, the ox- 
ygen of the air in the lungs, is exchanged for the carbonic 
acid in the venous blood. 

189. The common carotid arteries on each side of the 
neck; the subclavian, the axillary, the brachial, radial 
and ulnar in each upper extremity : the gastric, hepatic, 
splenic, and renal, sup})lying the stomach, liver, spleen, 



PHYSIOLOGY. 301 

and kidneys respectively ; the external and internal iliac, 
the femoral, popliteal, anterior and posterior tibial in each 
lower extremity. 

190. The external and internal jugular veins which re- 
turn the blood from the head ; the innominate veins 
which unite to form the superior cava ; the femoral and 
iliac veins which terminate in the inferior cava ; the pul- 
monary veins from the lungs to the heart. 

191. It distributes heat and moisture throughout the 
system, supplies the body with material for its growth, and 
carries away the waste matters. 

192. It is due to the presence of iron in the corpuscles; 
the degree in which the iron is oxidized determines the 
tint of the blood. 

193. The larynx, the trachea, the lungs, and the mus- 
cles used in breathing, chiefly, the diaphragm. 

194. About three hundred cubic inches. 

195. (a) It is the serous membrane which invest the 
lungs : (b) Inflammation of the pleura. 

196. (a) The larynx. 

It is composed of cartilages, viz : 2 arytenoid, 2 cunei- 
form, 1 cricoid, 1 thyroid, and the epiglottis. 

197. (a) Properly speaking they are not chords, but 
are membranous sheets attached to the thyroid and ary- 
tenoid cartilages, the free edges of which vibrate when a 
current of air is forced between them, (b) The promi- 
nence on the throat known as " Adam's apple," is formed 
mostly by the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. 

198. (a) The tone of the voice depends upon the size 
and shape of the vocal organs : (b) The pitch of the 
voice depends upon the length, breadth, and thickness of 
the vocal chords. 

199. A grown person will consume about three hund- 
red cubic feet of air in twenty-four hours. 

200. (a) About seventeen and a half cubic feet:(b) 
Nearly fourteen cubic feet. 



302 PHYSIOLOGY. 

201. When the carbonic acid in the air is increased 
to ten per cent., or when the oxygen is decreased to ten 
per cent, of its entire volume, the air is then unfit for 
breathing, and cannot sustain life. — Martindale. 

202. (a) About 100 degrees, (b) It does, being 
from one to two degrees lower during sleep, than during 
periods of exercise. It also varies greatly in diseases. 

203. It is partly accomplished by radiation, since the 
body is ordinarily warmer than the air about it, and also 
partly by inhaling the cool air into the air passages. It is 
a well known principle in chemistry, that, when any sub- 
stance passes from a more solid to a less solid condition, as 
from solid to liquid, or liquid to a gas, heat is absorbed, or, 
in more common language, cold is made sensible. This is 
seen in the application of water, alcohol, or ether, to the 
skin, when a sensation of cold is felt, which is owing to the 
fact that the substance applied is passing from the form of 
a liquid to that of a vapor. Now the same thing takes 
place when the perspiration is allowed to evaporate from 
the surface of the body. The increased flow of blood, as 
brought about by the exercise, or the high temperature of 
the surrounding atmosphere, stimulates the vessels of the 
skin to more energetic action, and sensible perspiration is 
poured out upon the surface of the body. This, however, 
is now in contact with the currents of air always present 
about the body, and it is readily thrown out into a state of 
vapor, and in accordance with the chemical principle just 
stated, heat is absorbed from the body producing its uniform 
temperature. — Hitcficock. 

204. The process of breathing consists of two acts, in- 
spiration and expiraiion. "When we draw in a full breath, 
we straighten the spine and throw the head and shoulders 
back, so as to give the greatest advantage to the muscles. 
At the same time the diaphragm descends and presses the 
walls of the abdomen outward. Both these processes in- 



PHYSIOLOGY. 303 

crease the size of the chest. Thereupon the elastic lungs 
expand to occupy the extra space, while the air, rushing in 
through the windpipe, pours along the bronchial tubes and 
crowds into every cell. 

"When we forcibly expel the air from our lungs, the 
operation is reversed. We bend forward, draw in the walls 
of the abdomen, and press the diaphragm upward, while 
the ribs are pulled downward— all together diminishing the 
size of the chest, and forcing the air outward. 

" Ordinary quiet breathing is performed mainly by the 
diaphragm — one breath to every four beats of the heart, 
or eighteen per minute." — Steele's Physiology. 

205. Coughing is a violent expiration in which the air is 
driven through the mouth. Sneezing differs from coughing, 
the air beind forced through the nose. Id. 

206. Hiccough is confined to inspiration. It is caused 
by a contraction of the diaphragm and a constriction of 
the glottis. Sighing is merely a prolonged inspiration fol- 
lowed by an audible expiration. Yawning, or gaping, is 
like sighing. Id. 

207. The skin is the natural covering of the body, and 
its chief functions are those of secretion and absorption. 

208. The skin is composed of three coats, viz : the 
Epidermis or outer coat, the Basement membrane or middle 
coat, and the Corium or internal layer. 

209. It is in the corium, the coloring matter, pigmen- 
iium nigrum, (black paint) being found in minute cells in 
this layer of the skin. 

210. Because the development of the Pigment Cells 
named above, depends upon exposure of the skin to the 
sun's light. Hence it is, that persons living in tropical 
countries are brown or black, while the inhabitants of 
high latitudes are comparatively fair. 

211. To a length not exccediiiu' two inches. The nails 
develop fully in from ten to twenty weeks. 



304 PHYSIOLOGY. 

212. The epidermis protects the corium and its vessels. 
Were it uot for this ])rotection to the corium, the "contact 
of the softest eider down with the exposed nervous fila- 
ments would impart the acutest pain, and the rays of the 
noon-day sun would inflict the keenest torture. The body 
could not endure the lightest clothing, and even our mo- 
tions through the air would be a source of misery." The 
epidermis also prevents excessive absorption, and undue 
perspiration. 

213. From thirty to forty ounces ; or if condensed to 
water, from one and a half to two pints. 

214. The whole surface of the body should be sponged 
at least three times a week in tepid water, giving particu- 
lar attention to the chest, feet, and armpits, followed by a 
brisk rubbing of the skin Avith a coarse towel. In addi- 
tion to this, the under clothing should be changed fre- 
quently, and ' ' the under-garments worn during the day 
should not be worn at night, and the reverse." 

215. The nervous system consists of the braiyi, the 
spinal cord, and the nerves ramifying through every part of 
the body. 

216. Functions of the nervous system: 

(1) It connects the different parts and organs of the 
body into an organic unit or whole. 

(2) It animates or governs all movements of the mus- 
cles, whether voluntary or not. 

(3) It regulates the temperature, nutrition, and secre- 
tion of the body. 

(4) It controls the processes of the organic life of the 
body. 

(5) It receives impressions which are generated by its 
terminal branches. 

(6) It conveys impressions to different jiortions of the 
body. 

(7) It generates influences which no other organ or 
system can produce, such as sight, smell, or taste. By means 



PHYSIOLOGY. 305 

of this function, it puts the body in direct communication 
with the outer world. — Hotze's Physiology. 

217. The brain is the organ of the mind, or the physi- 
cal instrument of thought and feeling. It consists of an 
egg-shaped mass of nervous matter which completely fills 
the cavity of the cranium, and is the largest organ of the 
body, its average weight being about fifty-four ounces in 
males, and forty-five ounces in females. 

In idiots the weight of the brain is less than twenty 
ounces. 

It is said that Cuvier's brain weighed sixty-four ounces. 

218. The cerebrum and the cerebeUmn. Some authors 
make the po7is and the medula oblongata divisions of the 
brain. 

The cerebrum is the upper and front portion of the brain, 
and is divided into two parts called hemispheres. Its sur- 
face is covered with tortuous ridges and depressions called 
anfractuosities. 

Lying back beneath the cerebrum, and connected with 
it by bands of fibers, is the cerebellum. This comprises 
about one-eighth of the entire mass of nerve-matter known 
as the brain. 

219. They are tortuous ridges or folds upon the superior 
surface of the cerebrum. It is believed that the height of 
these folds and the depth of the corresponding depressions 
form an index to the mental capacity of individuals. At 
least it has been observed that persons of great mental 
powers have the convolutions of the cerebrum developed 
to a marked degree. 

220. It is the smallest division of the brain, being 
about three inches long, and one inch in thickness. It 
forms the head of the spinal cord, and lies just within the 
cavity of the cranium. A line passing from the opening 
of one ear through the brain to the opening of the other 
ear, would pierce the center of the medula oblongata. 



306 PHYSIOLOGY. 

221. Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into 
three lobes. They are known as the anterior, the middle, 
and the posterior lobes. 

222. (a) The brain is composed of a pulpy mass of 
nerve-matter (tailed the white subdance, and the gray substance. 

(b) The spinal cord is formed of the same kinds of 
matter as the brain. But there is a difference in the ar- 
rangement of the white and the gray matter in the brain 
and in the spinal cord. In the brain, t!ie gray substance 
forms the exterior portion, and the white matter the in- 
terior. In the spinal cord, the white matter forms the ex- 
terior, and the gray matter the interior. 

223. The dura mater or the external covering ; the 
arachnoid which forms the inner surface of the dura mater; 
the pia mater or inner membrane which lies directly upon 
the surface of the brain, and dips into all the cavities and 
depressions. 

224. (a) They are knots, or nerve centres, found along the 
course of the nerves. 

(b) They are minute conical protuberances upon the 
surface of the skin covering the tips of the fingers, palms 
of the hands, and soles of the feet. They are arranged 
in circular lines visible to the naked eye, and each little 
projection is supplied with a nerve which forms a loop at 
the apex of the cone, the design of which arrangement is 
" to place the nerve in such a position, that it will be most 
easily impressed with whatever external substance it may 
be brought into contact." The papillae of taste cover the 
tongue. These are named circumvallate, capitate, and 
conical. 

225. (a) In the cerebrum are two cavities called the 
lateral ventricles, and a triangular space called the third ven- 
tricle of the brain. 

(b) In "dropsy of the brain" these cavities are found 
to contain a watery fluid called serum. It is said that a 



PHYSIOLOGY. 307 

post mortem examination of the brain of inebriates, reveals 
the fiict that the ventricles are partially filled with alcohol. 

226. The nerves are divided into two classes, cranial 
nerves, and spinal nerves. The first set are those given off 
from the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the medula 
oblongata; the second set are those given off" from the 
spinal cord. 

227. (a) There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves 
named from before backward. They are : — 

1st pr. . . Olfactory. .5th pr. . . Trifacial. 9th pr. . . Glosso-Pharj^ngeal. 

•2d " . .Optic. 6th " . . Abducentes 10th " . . Pneumogastric. 

3d " . . Oculo-motor 7th " . . Facial. 11th " . . Accessory. 

4th " . . Pathetic. 8th " . . Auditory. 12th " . . Lingual. 

228. There are thirty-two pairs of spinal nerves. 
"They arise on each side of the spinal cord by two roots, 
one given off from the anterior and the other from the 
posterior part of the lateral cords ; the anterior root being 
the one that is designed to produce motion, and the poster- 
ior giving sensation to the parts on which it is distributed- 
These two roots unite as soon as they have fairly left the 
spinal cord, after which they proceed as a single nerve." 

229. The cerebellum or lesser brain. "Persons in 
whom this organ is injured or diseased, walk as if intoxicated, 
and cannot perform any orderly work." 

230. It presides over respiration. Pressure upon it 
suspends breathing, and when it is i)unctured, death follows. 

231. The sclerotic coat commonly called the white of 
the eye, the choroid coat, or middle membrane, and the 
inner coat formed by the expansion of the optic nerve, 
called the retina. The front fifth of the eye is covered by 
the cornea, a transparent membrane which fits into the 
sclerotic coat. 

232. The aqueous humor, the crystalline lens, and the 
vitreous humor. This last named humor forms seven - 
eights of the globe of the eye. 



308 PHYSIOLOCiY. 

233. In the iris, the front division of the choroid coat. 
The iris corresponds to the cornea, and has an opening in 
it to admit the rays of light, wliich is called the pupil of 
the eye. The iris has the aqueous humor both front and 
back of it 

234. Short-sightedness is caused by the crystalline lens 
being too convex, thus forming the image in front of the 
retina. 

Long-sightedness is caused by the lens being too flat, the 
image being formed behind the retina. 

235. The pinna or external ear, the tympanum or mid- 
dle ear, the labyrinth or internal ear. 

236. The auricle, and the external auditory canal. 

237. The tympanum proper, the eustachian tube, and 
the three small bones named malleus, dapes, and incus. 

238. It is a tubular passage about two inches long, and 
connects the tympanum with the pharynx. 

239. The labyrinth is divided into three parts; they 
are named the vestibule, the semicircular canals, and the 
cochlea. 

240. The memhrana tympani. 

241. Steele says: ''The influence of the sun's rays 
upon the nervous system is very marked. It is said also 
to have the effect of developing red disks in the blood. 
All vigor and activity come from the sun. Vegetables 
grown in subdued light have a bleached and faded look. 
An infant kept in absolute darkness would only grow into 
a shapeless idiot. That room is the healthiest to which the 
sun has the freest access. Epidemics frequently attack the 
inhabitants of the shady side of a street, and totally ex- 
empt those on the sunny side. If, on a slight indisposi- 
tion, we should go out into the open air and bright sun- 
light, instead of shutting ourselves up in a close, dark 
chamber, we might avoid many a serious illness The sun- 
bath is doubtless a most efficient remedy for many diseases. 



PHYSIOLOfiY. 309 

Our window blinds and curtains should be thrown back 
and open, and we should let the blessed air and sun stream 
in to invigorate and cheer. No house buiied in shade, 
and no room with darkened windows, is fit for human 
habitation. In damp and darkness, lies in wait almost 
every disease to which flesh is heir. The sun is their only 
successful foe." 



QUESTIONS 

ON 

TBACH INQ. 



1. State some of the ends to be attained by study. 

2. State a proper punishment for tardiness. 

3. Why should pupils be required to recite in good 
language ? 

4. Which should be taught first, technical grammar or 
composition ? 

5. Should teachers consult authors on the subject of 
the Theory and Practice of Teaching ? 

6. How may pupils be taught the different voAvel and 
consonant sounds ? 

7. Should prizes be ofl^ered as incentives to study ? 

8. What are the principal objects of the recitation ? 

9. Should pupils be detained after school hours to 
study neglected lessons? 

10. What are some of the objects of punishment ? 

11. How can regularity in attendance be secured ? 

12. What is necessary to organize a school properly ? 

13. Name the furniture necessary in the school-room. 

14. What apparatus is indispensable in the class-room? 

15. What traits of character should the teacher culti- 
vate in his pupils? 

16. What does a grammar school course of study 
embrace ? 

17. What assistance should be given pupils in the 
preparation of lessons? 



312 TEACHING. 

18. What is meant by teaching ii definition or a rule 
inductively ? 

19. Name some eminent writers on the Theory and 
Practice (tf Teacliing. 

20. What is the object in maintaining our common 
school system ? 

21. State the sources from which you derive your 
wages for teaching in the public schools. 

22. Name and locate in the United States five institu- 
tions devoted to the special training of teachers. 

23. How find the average per cent, of attendance in 
a school ? 

24. Name the present Commissioner or Superintendent 
of Common Schools of this State. 

25. What are his chief duties ? 

26. What are some of the means to prevent tardiness? 

27. Should pupils be allowed to recite " by turns?" 

28. What is teaching ? 

29. What is the proper degree of temperature for the 
school-room ? 

30. What faculties of the mind are most active in 
childhood ? 

31. What attributes of character should the teacher 
manifest in the school-room ? 

32. Mention some slate exercises to be daily prepared 
by primary pupils. 

83. What are Object Lessons ? 

34. What is the extent of the teacher's jurisdiction 
over his pupils in going to and returning from school ? 

35. What is education ? 

36. What should be done to stimulate pupils to study ? 

37. What is the duty of teachers as regards the care 
of school property ? 

38. What care should the teacher exercise over the 
health of his pupils ? 



TEACHING. 313 

39. What items are worthy of daily record by the 
teacher ? 

40. What are common faults of teachers in conducting 
recitations ? 

41. What are the ends to be attained through educa- 
tion ? 

42. What is the duty of the teacher as regards impro- 
prieties of both speech and manners often observed of 
pupils ? 

43. How may attention be secured during recitations? 

44. Should teachers confine their questions to the 
matter in the text-books? 

45. What is a successful method of teaching spelling ? 

46. Should teachers be swayed in their management of 
schools by members of Boards of Directors ? 

47. What attention should be given to instruction in 
writing ? 

48. How should school-rooms be ventilated ? 

49. How should school-rooms be heated when furnaces 
or steam heaters cannot be furnished ? 

50. What is the best method of study and recitation 
for advanced pupils ? 

51. What should be the disposition of the teacher to- 
wards a pupil in cases in which it is necessary to give re- 
proof, or to inflict punishment? 

52. To what source may all misconduct and willful 
disobedience of pupils be traced ? 

53. What false notion is prevalent as regards proficien- 
cy of collegiate training ? 

54. How do you regard class criticism ? 

55. Should young pupils be required to keep quiet in 
their seats ? 

56. What employment should be given children too 
young to study ? 

57. Is it the teacher's duty to correct faults in posture 
of pupils in the class and at their desks ? 



314 TEACHING. 

58. How often should reviews of subjects be given ? 

59. Is it advisable for the teacher to become acquainted 
with the patrons of the school before beginning the term? 

60. What is "supplementary reading " in schools? 

61. Suggest some matter supplementary to the study 
of the topic in United States history, ' Naval victories of 
1813." 

62. Name some of the essential qualifications of the 
teacher. 

63. What should determine the length of lessons as- 
signed pupils? 

64. Would the study of Elementary Natural Science 
be beneficial in the common schools ? 

65. What are the rules of memory ? 

66. How would you promote the retentiveness of mem- 
ory ? 

67. What is reason ? What is its order of developmeiit 
in the growth of intellect ? 

68. Give the laws of questioning. 

69. Name the methods of conducting recitations. 

70. Name (a) the advantages, and (b) the disadvant- 
ages of concert recitation. 

71. What is empirical knowledge? What is school 
ethics? 

72. Name a bad result to pupils (a) from the use of 
poorly priuted books and papers, and (b) from wrong seat 
positions, or improper postures in the class. 

73. What are leading questions? What are direct 
questions ? 



ANSWERS 



QUESTIONS ON TEACHINQ. 



1. (1) To gather knowledge, and to classify accurately 
and logically that which has been obtained. 

(2) To be able to communicate to others what we our- 
selves have learned. 

(3) To stimulate the aspirations for the true and noble. 

2. The pupil should be made feel that he has lost an 
interesting exercise of the school, that he has greatly an- 
noyed his fellow pupils by interrupting their recitations 
and study, and that habits of carelessness formed in youth 
become fixed in maturer years. 

3. To fix the use of correct speech, and to impress the 
pupils with the fact that the rules and laws of language 
as studied in their grammars, have meaning and intelligent 
appiication. 

4. Teach composition first if these subjects are taught 
separately in the school. But the better method is to com- 
bine them in the course of instruction. Profitable instruc- 
tion in grammar and composition can be imparted to the 
reading classes daily, by making the sentences of those 
lessons the subject of discussion. 

5. They should for the purpose of gathering hijits and 
suggestions on teaching the various subjects, and on school 
management, as given by persons eminent in tlie profes- 
Bion ; but it must be borne in mind that ideas and not 
formulcB are the things to be sought. 



316 TEACHING. 

6. By drilling them frequently on exercises in articula- 
tion from lessons prepared on the blackboard by the 
teacher, or from charts of elementary sounds, with which 
every school should be supplied. 

Begin with the long vowel sounds and drill the pupils 
both individually and in concert, giving each sound cor- 
rectly and distinctly before requesting the pupils to give 
it. 

7. This method of inciting pupils to study is con- 
demned by many excellent teachers. 

The true teacher can inspire his pupils with love of 
work, with ambition to excel, with pride of attainments, 
with hope of great achievements, through the influence of 
personal examples of industry, cheerfulness, enthusiasm, 
and perseverence in the work of education. The magnetic 
powers of an earnest, conscientious teacher, thoroughly in 
love with the labors of the class-room, and awake to its 
duties, will do more to arouse the dormant forces of a 
school than all the prizes that may be offered. 

8. The principal objects of the recitation are : 

(1) To determine the extent of the learner's acquire- 
ments. 

(2) To correct that which is faulty in his attainments. 

(3) To develop the subject of the recitation, and to as- 
sist the ])upil to make a proper classification of its parts. 

(4) To fix facts, and to add to what the pupil has ac- 
quired. 

(5) To lead the learner to observe closely and to inves- 
tigate subjects thoroughly. 

(6) To cultivate the power of ready and accurate ex- 
pression. 

9. They should not. The number of hours constitut- 
ing a day of school work is fixed by statute, and teachers 
have no authority to detain pupils against their consent, 
after the day's work has been completed. Besides, if this 



TEACHING. 317 

were not the case, it is a poor kind of punishment which 
compels him who inflicts it, to sutler e(iually with the 
offender. 

10. To reform the offender, and to maintain discipline. 
In many States it is a violation of the statute to resort 

to corporal punishment in the control of schools, and where 
it is permissible "when inflicted in moderation, and in 
keeping with the misdemeanor," such means of govern- 
ment freciuently work injury to the school, and rarely, if 
ever, produce good results. In the better class of schools 
corporal punishment has been abolished. 

11. (1) By making the school and its work more at- 
tractive than the street. 

(2) By securing the cooperation of parents in awakening 
interest in the school work. 

(3) By making special preparation for each recitation. 

(4) The teacher must be devoted to his profession, and 
enthusiastic in his work. 

12. The school-room being supplied with necessary fur- 
niture and apparatus, the first work in order is the enroll- 
ment of pupils. After this, the branches of study to be 
taught, the number of pupils in each, and their ages and 
advancement, should be noted. From these data the 
teacher should prepare a program showing hours of study, 
recitation, and intermission, and the older pupils should be 
required to copy it for convenient reference until they be- 
come familiar with the order of work. Then, regulations 
as to discipline and privileges, general exercises, and other 
matters may be stated, following which the class work of 
the school should be commenced. No time shoull be spent 
in hesitating what to do. The teacher must act with de- 
cision, or an important point in the future government of 
the school will be lost. Pui)ils are close observers, and 
their first impressions of a teacher's characteristics greatly 
determine the respect to be shown him. 



318 TEACHING. 

13. Ample black-boards, a clock, a call bell, chairs, 
seats and desks for pupils, a desk for the teacher, a hat-rack, 
brooms, brushes, buckets, and drinking cups. In addition 
to these, every school should be provided with a library of 
reference books. 

14. Elementary charts, numerical frames, mathematic- 
al blocks, globes, physiological charts, cards for drawing, 
outline maps, writing cards, a thermometer, a tellurian, an 
air-pump, and an unnhridged dictionary. 

15. Politeness, honesty, industry, morality, and patriot- 
ism. 

16. Spelling and defining, reading, writing, composi- 
tion, English grammar, geography. United States history, 
the elements of physiology, mental arithmetic, written 
arithmetic, vocal music, and drawing. 

17. It is the teacher's duty to direct pupils in their 
methods of study and preparation of lessons. Difficult 
features of new subjects should be pointed out and briefly 
commented on by the teacher ; but the work of investiga- 
tion and the development of subjects should be carried on 
by the pupils, with only hints from the teacher as to where 
\p find things and how to arrange matter. 

18. Inductively means literally manner of leading in. 
In the sense of the question it means Ihe method of reasoning 
from apart to the whole, from particulars to generals. That is, 
a pupil is led into a definition or generalization by having 
him gather particulars, compare and study their relations 
to each other, and thus to arrive at a general law or 
definition. 

19. Among the eminent writers on the Theory and 
Practice of Teaching are, Horace Maun, Henry Barnard, 
John Ogden, Francis W. Parker, Charles Northend, and 
David P. Paige. Among the great educational reformers 
may be named Locke, Rosseau, Pestalozzi, Jacotot, and 
Herbert Spencer. 



TEACHING. 319 

20. The direct aim of our common schools is to give 
our youth the elements of an English education, such as 
will fit them for the ordinary duties of life. 

The purpose for which our common schools were pro- 
vided for, and for which they are maintained, is well 
expressed in this quotation from that wonderful instru- 
ment, the "Ordinance of '87 :" '^Religion, morality , and 
knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness 
of mankind, schools and the means of educatioii, shall forever be 
encouraged. " 

21. From State, county, and local taxes ; and in most 
of the States from the interest on permanent funds, or 
from revenue from the sale of public lands. In some 
States, the State scliool revenue amounts to 98 per cent, of 
the entire school fund. 

22. State Normal nr 1 Training School, Geneseo. N. Y. 
State Normal School, Millersville, Pa. 

National Normal University, Lebanon, O. 
State Normal University, Normal, 111. 
Indiana State Normal, Terre Haute, Ind. 

23. Multiply the average daily attendance by 100, and 
divide the product by the average monthly enrollment. 
The quotient to the nearest integer will be the required 
result. 

24. [The answer depends upon where and when this 
question is asked. The question is asked in this work to 
awaken thought concerning State school systems.] 

25. The chief duties of the State Superintendent or 
Commissioner of common schools are : to receive statistical 
and financial statements from county Superintendents and 
Boards of Education ; to construe the school laws of the 
State ; to visit annually each county, and to organize 
Teachers' Institutes ; to apportion school revenues ; to 
make an annual report to the Governor on the condition 
of the schools ; and in some States to appoint members of 
the State Board of Examiners. 



320 TEACHING. 

26. There is but one successful means of preventing 
tardiness, and that is to create an interest in the class 
exercises of the school. This can best be accomplished 
through the energetic work and skillful management of 
the teacher. Pupils must be assigned special work to 
prepare for recitations, and they should be encouraged to 
do it well and promptly. Parents should be informed of 
the progress of pupils, and their co-operation should be had 
in securing punctual and regular attendance of those under 
their control. The teacher's bearing towards his scholars 
should always be such as to win their love and respect. 

27. Not as a fixed order of recitation. 

The method of reciting " by turns," or in consecutive 
order, is frequently the cause of want of interest in the 
class. Pupils learu to note the questions likely to be asked 
them, and study only their answers. This not only hinders 
the pupils' interest in the entire subject matter, but at the 
same time affords tempting opportunities for misconduct 
while waiting for their ' ' turn " to recite. The method of 
calling upon pupils promiscuously to recite, is the plan 
generally approved by successful teachers. 

28. Teaching, in its general sense, is the imparting of 
knowledge not before known. But in the sense of its 
application to the duties of the school teacher, it has been 
well defined to be : to mold and indruct ; to impart iisefid 
knowledge; to illambie with the light of science; to purify ami 
ennoble; to fortify against errors and emls ; to fashion and dis- 
ciplinefor ivise, vhiuous, and useful action. 

29. The temperature of the school room should be kept 
at from 68° to 70° Fahrenheit's thermometer. 

30. Perception and memory. 

The order of mental development is, perception, memory, 
imagination, reason, and generalization. 

All mental training should be based on the above 
order of mind growth. 



TEACHING. 321 

31. Promptness, cheerfulness, and earnestness. 

32. A portion of each reading lesson, and of each 
spelling lesson also, should be prepared on slates or on 
paper. Have the pupils to substitute the written matter 
which they so prepare in place of their books, when re- 
citing, so that they nuiy become familiar with script. 

Drawing lessons and work in arithmetic should be pre- 
pared on slates, or on paper with lead pencils. 

33. Object Lessons is a term applied to that method of 
primary instruction, in which it is sought to develop the 
child's faculties by placing the actual object or thing talked 
about, before him for observation. This method of in- 
struction embraces discussions of such objects ^s a cube, a 
feather, a piece of glass, a picture, a book, etc. 

34. A Justice of the Rhode Island State Supreme 
Court says on this subject, that " the law seems to be well 
settled, and is this ; that for such misbehavior out of 
school as has a direct and immediate tendency to injure the 
school, to subvert the master's authority, and to beget dis- 
order and insubordination, the teacher may inflict corporal 
punishment." 

In States where the law on any particular point in con- 
troversy is not clearly settled, the decisions on such points 
in the Courts of other States are generally accepted as law 
— although such is not necessarily the case. 

85. In the full definition of the term, education is to 
draw forth faculties, to strengthen and to train them, to 
establish principles, and to develoj) powers. 

36. Encourage the smaller pupils in the preparation of 
their lessons by speaking approvingly of their efforts. The 
teacher should go among the little ones at their desks, and 
he should make it a point to inspect the work of each, to 
encourage the timid, and to provide the unemployed with 
something to do. Older pupils while not averse to aj)- 
proval, may be appealed to through the agency of reason. 



322 TEACHING. 

They should be shown the necessity for diligence in their 
school work, and the bad results likely to follow neglect of 
mental improvement in youth, should be clearly pointed 
out to them. 

The whole matter of school management has been truth- 
fully expressed in "As is the teacher, so will be the school." 
If the teacher is earnestly devoted to his labors, the school 
under his management will not be long in manifesting a 
like spirit. 

37. It is the duty of teachers to exercise the same care 
over school buildings and grounds, school furniture and 
apparatus given into their control, that they would over 
their own property. Pupils should be informed by teachers 
that to destroy or to deface school property is an offense 
punishable by fine, and in some cases, by fine and imprison- 
ment, 

38. The teacher should have a knowledge of the laws 
of health, and he should exercise it carefully in the man- 
agement of his pupils. It is his duty to see that the 
school-room is properly heated, that it is supplied with 
pureairand sufficient sunlight, that pupils maintain proper 
positions of limbs and body at their desks and in their 
classes, that the seats and desks are suited to the ages of 
the pupils, and that no pupil with damp clothes or cold 
feet remains away from the fire. 

Much sickness and many causes of complaint among 
pupils come from exposure during the outdoor recesses, 
and the prudent teacher will abolish these in bad weather. 
In many of the better graded schools throughout the 
country, only indoor recesses are given pupils, but the 
number of hours spent in the school-room is lessened. 

39. The teacher should keep a daily record of the at- 
tendance, the cases of tardiness, and the deportment of his 
scholars. He should keep, also, a private class-book with the 
names of the members of each class enrolled in it, for the 



TEACHING. 323 

purpose of grading at recitations. At the close of each 
week these grades should be read to the school ; and, at 
the end of the month, each pupil's grades should be made 
out in proper form and sent to his parents for inspection. 

A convenient scale for class grading is one ranging from 
to 3. In this, 3 indicates satisjadory; 2, a little defective] 
1, unsatisfactory ; and 0, entirely faulty. 

In this j^rivate register should be noted particularly in- 
teresting features of recitations, suggestions on methods of 
developing subjects, new formsof solution of problems, and 
other matter relating to the school and its work. 

40. (1) Tiie questions asked by the teacher require no 
effort on the part of the pupils to answer. 

(2) Many of the questions have no connection with the 
subject under discussion. 

(3) The questions are asked at random, the teacher hav- 
ing no fixed order of development of the subject. 

(4) The teacher assumes the responsibility of answering 
his own questions, before the pupils have fully considered 
them. 

(5) The teacher talks too much and too loud. 

(6 ) The teacher lacks understanding of what he attempts 
to teach. 

41. We quote as follows: Education makes men more 
industrious ; more trustworthy ;_ more active and systematic ; 
more cheerful ; more far-sighted ; more economical as pro- 
ducers and preservers of property. 

42. All such improprieties as come under the notice of 
the teacher should be pointed out and corrected by him, in 
a manner that will not wound the feelings of the pupil, 
but in a way that will meet his approval, and which will 
put him on his guard against future errors. 

43. (1) By making preparation for the recitation. 

(2) By teaching the subject, and not the language of 
the text. 



324 TEACHING. 

(3) By insisting on exactness of statements and prompt- 
ness in response to questions. 

(4) By manifesting interest in what you are teaching. 

44. They should not. 

Many questions bearing on the subject matter of the 
lesson will suggest themselves to the intelligent teacher in 
the course of the recitation, which it is proper to ask, 
although their answers may not be gleaned directly from 
the text-book. In truth, it is leading pupils into habits of 
independent thinking, causing them to investigate matters 
for themselves, enlarging their field of thought, and de- 
veloping subjects logically and fully, that mark the course 
of the successful teacher. 

45. A successful method of teaching spelling is to have 
the class write the words of the lesson on their slates, and 
to have them use these at the recitation instead of their 
books. The advantages of this method are : 

(a) It gives employment to all during the time for study. 

(b) Each pupil prepares all the words of the lesson. 

(c) The form of each word of the lesson is impressed 
upon the mind of every member of the class. 

(d) It gives extensive practice in writing. 

(f) It cultivates painstaking in the preparation of work. 

46. Not in anything relating to methods of instruction, 
or class-room management. A teacher should not sacrifice 
his individuality to serve the humor of those who know 
much less than he does of the duties of the school-room. 

47. Pupils should be instructed in the manner of hold- 
ing the pen properly, and in the correct position of the 
head, chest, and limbs while writing. A free, rapid, and 
graceful movement of the hand and forearm should be en- 
couraged. 

The teacher should insist on each pupil's acquiring a 
legible handwriting free from ornament and flourish, but 
distinctly marking the pupil's individualism, as it will do 
sooner or later. 



TEACHING. 325 

48. School-rooins should be ventilated by means of ven- 
tilating flues built in the Avails of the house, and communi- 
cating with the attic. But in buildings not provided with 
such flues, the windows should be hung with pulleys in 
order that they may be raised or lowered with ease, and 
by proper management, these will secure a tolerably good 
degree of ventilation. In connection with this subject, 
we quote the following from the Ohio School Report, 1881. 

"A window raised for ventilating purposes admits a 
current of cold air directly on the pupils. A window 
lowered is likely to furnish an exit to all the warm air in 
the room, no matter how this warm air is furnished. More 
often two currents are established, taking all the warm air 
out and admitting a cold current, this producing colds or 
rheumatisms in such parts of the body as they strike. 

"To obviate these results, if windows must for a time 
be used to supply fresh air, a board six or eight inches 
wide may be closely fitted against the outside of the bot- 
tom of the sash, but so that the sash may be raised. 
Then, on raising the window a few inches, no currents en- 
ter the room below the sash ; while up between the lower 
and the upper sash cold air will be pressed in to supply 
what is exhausted from the room by the stove or grate. 
The warm air of the room, being light, will not escape 
down through this channel. Currents will, by this ar- 
rangement, be mostly, though not always, obviated." 

49. The means are within reach to furnish pure, warm 
air to country school-houses, as conveniently and cheaply 
as it can be furnished to large city buildings by furnaces 
or by steam. School stoves are manufactured, consisting 
of coal or Avood stoves, surrounded by sheet-iron casings, 
at the bottom of which pure air can be admitted through 
a hole in the floor or wall, and communicating with the 
weather by means of a box or tin tube under the floor. 

A paneled box or a tin tube in the corner of the room, 
reaching through the roof, and with an opening into the 



326 TEACHING. 

room at the bottom, equal to the full capacity of the tube, 
will carry off the bad air. 

A stove is also constructed called " The Fire on the 
Hearth," with casings and a corrugated sheet of copper, 
forming many small tubes inside of the casing, and with 
an open grate for the fire. This, when furnished with 
outdoor communications through the floor or wall, for the 
admission of pure air to be heated within the casings, 
ventilates like a common open grate. 

Better than nothing, though in the end but little, if 
any cheaper than the above, would be a common stove 
surrounded by a sheet-iron casing, and the never-to-be" 
omitted outdoor communications, both for admitting and 
for emitting the air as above. — Ohio School Report, 1881. 

50. The Topical Method is perhaps the best, from its 
application to all subjects. But the Analytical Method 
is not to be ignored, as it is of the highest value in devel- 
oping the faculties of casualty and comparison. 

51. The teacher is apt to arouse the same spirit in the 
pupil that he manifests himself, hence it is of the greatest 
moment that he avoids the least manifestation of the vin- 
dictive spirit in administering reproof. All personal 
indignities, such as pulling the ears of pupils, slapping 
them with a book or the open hand, and other such con- 
duct, should never be indulged. If it becomes necessary 
to resort to bodily punishment, the teacher should with- 
hold its infliction until he knows himself to be free from 
all rash impulses. 

52. It is. generally found to have its beginning at 
home. Every observing teacher knows at first sight what 
the home influence over his pupils has been, and he makes 
allowance accordingly in the control of his school. It is 
folly to suppose a vicious, ill-bred or clumsy pupil in 
school, to be cultivated, mannerly, or graceful at home. 
As well suppose the ferocious beast in the cage to be per- 
fectly docile in his native wilds, 



TEACHING. 327 

53. That a few years spent within the walls of a col- 
lege will assure a young man or woman a successful 
career through life. A prominent educator says on this 
subject : " The young man comes to believe that when he 
gr^tduates he is educated, and hence entitled to some con- 
sideration. And so he is ; but he gets the idea that he is 
then ready to commence in the world, and that it has 
some special opening for him. He thinks that said world 
is under an obligation to receive him fresh from the arms 
of his ' Alma mater,' and to compensate him for his long 
years of toil. He thus makes up his full bill of items, and 
presents his claims ; but the heartless world tells him 
* to tarry at Jericho until his beard be grown,' or to 
prove his claim, and to make good his title, and then to 
come and it will listen to him. If he obey this admonition, 
he may succeed. If he disregard it, he will be apt to 
meet with disappointment, and to fall back among that 
numerous class of splendid failures who graduate for a 
name." 

54. It is an invigorating class exercise. It stimulates 
pujiils to searching preparation of lessons, and to a care- 
ful intelligent recital of them. It is one of the very best 
means to secure order and attention in the class, and to 
sharpen the discriminating powers of pupils. But all 
criticism must bear directly on matters pertaining to the 
recitation. Criticism personal in its reflection should not 
be permitted. 

55. The younger jjupils of the school should be given 
much freedom of posture during school hours. In the 
country schools where the periods of study and recitation 
extend through the space of an hour and a half or longer, 
the primary pupils should be given frequent outdoor re- 
cesses in fine weather, and drawing or copying to do at the 
blackboard, as a relief from the seat position, when the 
weather is unfit for outdoor exercise, 



328 TEACHING. 

56. Give them such work as the copying of lines, fig- 
ures, and words, as both slate and blackboard exercises. 

Every child in health has a certain amount of energy 
which must be expended through some channel, and if 
the teacher does not provide means for its escape, the 
child will. If teachers would devote more thought to 
means of useful employment of their pupils, they would 
have fewer occasions to complain of misbehavior and idle- 
ness. 

57. The cultivation of mind and body should go to- 
gether, since the development of one gives tone and vigor 
to the other; and while it is not expected of the teachers 
in our common schools to drill their pupils in exercises for 
bodily development, they should as a part of their duty, 
cultivate them in habits of easy and graceful positions both 
in sitting and standing. Slovenliness, swaggering, shuff- 
ling, and all affectation of walk should be corrected in the 
school-room. 

58. It is the practice of many successful teachers to 
have reviews of the week's work every Friday afternoon. 
Others hold reviews of each month's work at its close. 
The better plan is to review special topics as the wants of 
the class demand it, and to have general reviews at the 
close of each month. These may be oral or written, 
or both. 

59. The teacher should spend the week previous to the 
opening of school among the patrons of the district. Es- 
pecially is this applicable to the country schools, where 
parents are usually careless about sending their children at 
the beginning of the term. Moreover, the teacher can 
thus become acquainted with his pujjils in their homes, and 
thereby learn much of their antecedents, which will be of 
great value to him in the government of his school. 

60. It is the reading of such outside matter as will 
lead to a fuller understanding of subjects taught than can 
be obtained from the text-books, 



TEACHING. 329 

61. (a) "Mackenzie's Life of Com. O. H. Perry." 
(b) " 01(1 Ironsides," and "The Wasp and the Hornet," 
by* Holmes. 

62. (a) The teacher should possess a physical organiza- 
tion, free from such ailments as tend to impair his temper 
and disposition. 

(b) He should possess a vigorous mental organization, 
and he should be endowed with a fair amount of that most 
valuable mental quality known as common sense. 

(c) He should have in addition to a thorough knowledge 
of the subjects taught in the schools, a fund of general 
information ct vering a vast range. 

(d) His morals should be above reproach, 
(f) He should possess good executive ability. 

63. (a) The advancement of the class. 

(b) The time to be devoted to study and recitation. 

(c) The age of the pupils and their ability to learn. 

(d) The nature of the subject itself. 

64. The elements of Botany, Chemistry, and Natural 
Philosophy should be taught in our common schools. 

Entirely too much time is devoted to the subjects of 
Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic, in mo.st district schools ; 
often one half of the time of pupils is devoted to the 
study of Arithmetic alone. 

65. Use strengthens the memory ; inactivity dwarfs it ; 
over-exercise impairs it ; to know thoroughly is the sure 
way to remember. " 

66. (a) By frequent drills on subjects to be memorized. 

(b) By creating interest in things to be learned. 

(c) By making the subject thoroughly understood. 

67. (a) " Reason is that power of the mind which com- 
pares, understands, infers, judges." 

(b) The order of mental development is ■perc&ptwn, 
memory, imagination, reason, and generalization. 

68. (a) Questions should be clear,, concise, and definite. 



330 TEACHING. 

(b) They should, be adapted to the capacity of the pupil. 

(c) They should be in the language of the teacher, not 
in that of the book. 

(d) They should bar monosyllabic answers. 

(e) They should not suggest the answers by contrast. 

(f) They, should require mental effort on the part of 
the pupil to answer. 

(g) They should lead to the logical development of the 
subject. 

69. (a) The Catechetical Method ; (b) The Topical 
Method. 

As to order of recitation there are — 

(a) The Consecutive Method ; (b) The Promiscuous 
Method ; (c) The Concert Method. 

70. (a) It economizes time ; it stimulates the young 
and the timid; it promotes rivalry in promptness of 
response to questions. 

(b) It prevents individual drill ; it gives opportunity 
to shift responsibility ; it fails to necessitate close and 
universal attention. 

71. (a) That which is wanting in science and deep in- 
sight; or, it is the knowledge of experience as derived 
through the senses, (b) ' ' School ethics relates to the 
rights and duties of persons connected with the school." 
— Wickersham. 

72. (a) Myopia, or near-sightedness. 

(b) Scoliosis, or lateral curvature of the spine. 

73. (a) Those that suggest the answers to be given, 
(b) Those that can be sufficiently answered by " yes," 

or " no." 



